Income gaps in China kept widening over the past four decades of economic transition. First, this paper describes the change in income gaps before and after reform and opening-up in 1978 and found that income gaps had...Income gaps in China kept widening over the past four decades of economic transition. First, this paper describes the change in income gaps before and after reform and opening-up in 1978 and found that income gaps had been expanding between urban and rural areas, within cities and within the countryside. However, this did not lead to income polarization since low-income groups only had a slower income growth compared with highincome groups. The number of poor people continuously reduced thanks to rapid economic growth. Over the past decade, the widening of income gaps has been initially curbed. Accordingly, we explained the impact of economic transition on income distribution from the perspectives of market-based distribution, ownership structure, opening-up and internal income distribution. Lastly, this paper provides an in-depth analysis on urban-rural income gaps, excessive compensation in monopolistic sectors and income inequalities arising from corruption. To address these problems, it is important to enhance tax regulation, increase transfer payments to poor people, improve social security, equalize public services, enhance poverty relief and develop a fairer income distribution system.展开更多
Extending the income dynamics approach in Quah （2003）, the present paper studies the enlarging income inequality in China over the past three decades from the viewpoint of rural-urban migration and economic transiti...Extending the income dynamics approach in Quah （2003）, the present paper studies the enlarging income inequality in China over the past three decades from the viewpoint of rural-urban migration and economic transition. We establish non-parametric estimations of rural and urban income distribution functions in China, and aggregate a population- weighted, nationwide income distribution function taking into account rural-urban differences in technological progress and price indexes. We calculate 12 inequality indexes through non-parametric estimation to overcome the biases in existingparametric estimation and, therefore, provide more accurate measurement of income inequalitY. Policy implications have been drawn based on our research.展开更多
The Pan-Third Pole region comprises multiple nations affected by climate vulnerability and energy inequality,wherein promoting energy transitions in rural households would provide a path to combat climate change.Ident...The Pan-Third Pole region comprises multiple nations affected by climate vulnerability and energy inequality,wherein promoting energy transitions in rural households would provide a path to combat climate change.Identifying the factors that drive rural household energy consumption and the transition is important.This study performed a micro-survey of 1060 rural households in five countries in the Pan-Third Pole region and empirically analyzed the relationships between off-farm income,energy consumption,and energy transitions.The off-farm income of rural households was found to have a significantly positive effect(p<0.01)on energy expenditure,indicating that energy expenditure increased with increasing off-farm income.Off-farm income has a significantly positive effect(p<0.01)on the proportion of commercial energy but a significantly negative effect on the proportion of noncommercial energy.These results indicate that increasing off-farm income can adjust the energy consumption structure of rural households.Furthermore,a robustness check by substituting independent variables,instrumental variable method(IV),and propensity score matching method(PSM)provided strong evidence to prove the robustness of the results.The heterogeneity analysis showed that the effects of off-farm income on energy expenditure and transitions differed among countries,off-farm income had no significant impact on energy expenditure in Cambodia and Myanmar,but it worked for China,Nepal,and Thailand.Finally,policy implications are proposed to promote energy transition in the Pan-Third pole region:providing more full-time or part-time off-farm employment opportunities,employment assistance or skill training by local governments;increasing the pace of infrastructure construction to solve energy inaccessibility;multiple measures to promote the education and environmental knowledge.展开更多
Resident income inequality has widened drastically within a short timeframe in the process of transition. From a static point of view, there is a combination of three factors underpinning the widening of the resident ...Resident income inequality has widened drastically within a short timeframe in the process of transition. From a static point of view, there is a combination of three factors underpinning the widening of the resident income gap. Such factors include a) the variation in quantity of factors of production accumulated during the planned economy era; b) the difference between localities in respect of starting points at different historical stages along their varying paths of evolution; c) the illegal and abnormal income stemming from institutional loopholes and policy deficiencies. From a dynamic point of view, there are three root causes underlying resident income gap expansion. Firstly, the privileged group has been continuing to benefit from an increasingly large share of institutional transition returns by exerting influence over the path of evolution; secondly, the underprivileged group has lost their ability to capture income on a sustainable basis due to the lack of a mechanism to express their interests; thirdly, public policies are not designed or enforced well enough to regulate income inequality. Given the significant effects of excess income disparity on economic performance and social stability, it is thus imperative to hold the income gap in check in light of the societal reality of the transitional stage.展开更多
We estimate the size of the global middle class in China and 33 other countries and analyze China’s expanding middle class in an international context.The“ghbal middle class”is defined in terms of being neither poo...We estimate the size of the global middle class in China and 33 other countries and analyze China’s expanding middle class in an international context.The“ghbal middle class”is defined in terms of being neither poor nor rich in the developed world.China’s global middle class has grown rapidly and has been catching up with the middle class in developed countries.By 2018 China’s global middle class constituted 25 percent of China s population;in absolute size it was nearly double the size of the global middle class in the US and was similar in size to that of Europe.Cross-country analysis of the relationship between the middle-class share of the total population and GDP per capita reveals an inverted-U pattern.China is not an outlier from the cross-country pattern but the speed with which its middle-class has expanded is unusual.The only other countries with similarly large,rapid expansions of the middle class are transition economies.展开更多
Resident income inequality has widened drastically within a short timeframe during the process of transition. From a static point of view, there is a combination of three factors underpinning the widening of the resid...Resident income inequality has widened drastically within a short timeframe during the process of transition. From a static point of view, there is a combination of three factors underpinning the widening of the resident income gap. Such factors include a) the variation in quantity of factors of production accumulated during the planned economic regime; b) the difference between localities in respect of starting points at different historical stages along their varying paths of evolution; c) the illegal and abnormal income stemming from institutional loopholes and policy deficiencies. From a dynamic point of view, there are three root causes underlying resident income gap expansion. Firstly, the privileged group has been continuing to benefit from an increasingly large share of institutional transition returns by exerting influence over the path of evolution; secondly, the underprivileged group has lost their ability to capture income on a sustainable basis due to the lack of a mechanism to express their interests; thirdly, public policies are not designed or enforced well enough to regulate income inequality. Given the significant effects of excess income disparity on economic performance and social stability, it is thus imperative to hold the income gap in check in light of the societal reality of the transitional stage.展开更多
Recently,Shandong Province unveiled"Nonferrous Industry Transition and Upgrading Plan",which proposed that by 2017 it would cultivate 2 ultra large aluminum industry groups with sales income topping 100 bill...Recently,Shandong Province unveiled"Nonferrous Industry Transition and Upgrading Plan",which proposed that by 2017 it would cultivate 2 ultra large aluminum industry groups with sales income topping 100 billion yuan,aluminum capacity will be reduced to 9million tonnes;before 2020 it will no longer add new capacity.展开更多
China＇s market-oriented reform is expected to strengthen the role of the market in allocating resources, which raises concerns over the impact of market transformation on income distribution and earnings inequality i...China＇s market-oriented reform is expected to strengthen the role of the market in allocating resources, which raises concerns over the impact of market transformation on income distribution and earnings inequality in the past decades. This paper decomposes the sources of inequality based on the newly developed Shapley value approach and examines the contributions of the market, along with other nonmarket factors, to total inequality. Using the China Health and Nutrition Survey data over the period 1989-2009, we find that the income gap between laborers with a higher level of education and those with a lower level has widened since the transformational reforms of the economy. Our results suggest that the largest contribution of changes in income inequality can be attributed to the increase in returns to education, while the relative contributions of the household registration （hukou） system, type of sector ownership, geographic location, and gender to inequality experienced a downward trend between 1989 and 2009. The authors argue that rising income inequality is the consequence of efficiency improvements and an imperfect economic system, and that the market is a decisive force in economic development as it releases competitive signals and creates incentive mechanisms for innovation. Creating a more efficient labor market and increasing investment in human capital, particularly equalizing educational opportunities and improving the quality of education in lagging rural and inland regions to disadvantaged groups, are significant for an equitable distribution of income and sustainable development in the long run.展开更多
文摘Income gaps in China kept widening over the past four decades of economic transition. First, this paper describes the change in income gaps before and after reform and opening-up in 1978 and found that income gaps had been expanding between urban and rural areas, within cities and within the countryside. However, this did not lead to income polarization since low-income groups only had a slower income growth compared with highincome groups. The number of poor people continuously reduced thanks to rapid economic growth. Over the past decade, the widening of income gaps has been initially curbed. Accordingly, we explained the impact of economic transition on income distribution from the perspectives of market-based distribution, ownership structure, opening-up and internal income distribution. Lastly, this paper provides an in-depth analysis on urban-rural income gaps, excessive compensation in monopolistic sectors and income inequalities arising from corruption. To address these problems, it is important to enhance tax regulation, increase transfer payments to poor people, improve social security, equalize public services, enhance poverty relief and develop a fairer income distribution system.
基金the National Science Foundation of China(No.70673072)the National Social Science Foundation of China(No.10JZD013)for financial support
文摘Extending the income dynamics approach in Quah （2003）, the present paper studies the enlarging income inequality in China over the past three decades from the viewpoint of rural-urban migration and economic transition. We establish non-parametric estimations of rural and urban income distribution functions in China, and aggregate a population- weighted, nationwide income distribution function taking into account rural-urban differences in technological progress and price indexes. We calculate 12 inequality indexes through non-parametric estimation to overcome the biases in existingparametric estimation and, therefore, provide more accurate measurement of income inequalitY. Policy implications have been drawn based on our research.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(72104112,41901255,31861143015)the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences(XDA20010303).
文摘The Pan-Third Pole region comprises multiple nations affected by climate vulnerability and energy inequality,wherein promoting energy transitions in rural households would provide a path to combat climate change.Identifying the factors that drive rural household energy consumption and the transition is important.This study performed a micro-survey of 1060 rural households in five countries in the Pan-Third Pole region and empirically analyzed the relationships between off-farm income,energy consumption,and energy transitions.The off-farm income of rural households was found to have a significantly positive effect(p<0.01)on energy expenditure,indicating that energy expenditure increased with increasing off-farm income.Off-farm income has a significantly positive effect(p<0.01)on the proportion of commercial energy but a significantly negative effect on the proportion of noncommercial energy.These results indicate that increasing off-farm income can adjust the energy consumption structure of rural households.Furthermore,a robustness check by substituting independent variables,instrumental variable method(IV),and propensity score matching method(PSM)provided strong evidence to prove the robustness of the results.The heterogeneity analysis showed that the effects of off-farm income on energy expenditure and transitions differed among countries,off-farm income had no significant impact on energy expenditure in Cambodia and Myanmar,but it worked for China,Nepal,and Thailand.Finally,policy implications are proposed to promote energy transition in the Pan-Third pole region:providing more full-time or part-time off-farm employment opportunities,employment assistance or skill training by local governments;increasing the pace of infrastructure construction to solve energy inaccessibility;multiple measures to promote the education and environmental knowledge.
文摘Resident income inequality has widened drastically within a short timeframe in the process of transition. From a static point of view, there is a combination of three factors underpinning the widening of the resident income gap. Such factors include a) the variation in quantity of factors of production accumulated during the planned economy era; b) the difference between localities in respect of starting points at different historical stages along their varying paths of evolution; c) the illegal and abnormal income stemming from institutional loopholes and policy deficiencies. From a dynamic point of view, there are three root causes underlying resident income gap expansion. Firstly, the privileged group has been continuing to benefit from an increasingly large share of institutional transition returns by exerting influence over the path of evolution; secondly, the underprivileged group has lost their ability to capture income on a sustainable basis due to the lack of a mechanism to express their interests; thirdly, public policies are not designed or enforced well enough to regulate income inequality. Given the significant effects of excess income disparity on economic performance and social stability, it is thus imperative to hold the income gap in check in light of the societal reality of the transitional stage.
文摘We estimate the size of the global middle class in China and 33 other countries and analyze China’s expanding middle class in an international context.The“ghbal middle class”is defined in terms of being neither poor nor rich in the developed world.China’s global middle class has grown rapidly and has been catching up with the middle class in developed countries.By 2018 China’s global middle class constituted 25 percent of China s population;in absolute size it was nearly double the size of the global middle class in the US and was similar in size to that of Europe.Cross-country analysis of the relationship between the middle-class share of the total population and GDP per capita reveals an inverted-U pattern.China is not an outlier from the cross-country pattern but the speed with which its middle-class has expanded is unusual.The only other countries with similarly large,rapid expansions of the middle class are transition economies.
文摘Resident income inequality has widened drastically within a short timeframe during the process of transition. From a static point of view, there is a combination of three factors underpinning the widening of the resident income gap. Such factors include a) the variation in quantity of factors of production accumulated during the planned economic regime; b) the difference between localities in respect of starting points at different historical stages along their varying paths of evolution; c) the illegal and abnormal income stemming from institutional loopholes and policy deficiencies. From a dynamic point of view, there are three root causes underlying resident income gap expansion. Firstly, the privileged group has been continuing to benefit from an increasingly large share of institutional transition returns by exerting influence over the path of evolution; secondly, the underprivileged group has lost their ability to capture income on a sustainable basis due to the lack of a mechanism to express their interests; thirdly, public policies are not designed or enforced well enough to regulate income inequality. Given the significant effects of excess income disparity on economic performance and social stability, it is thus imperative to hold the income gap in check in light of the societal reality of the transitional stage.
文摘Recently,Shandong Province unveiled"Nonferrous Industry Transition and Upgrading Plan",which proposed that by 2017 it would cultivate 2 ultra large aluminum industry groups with sales income topping 100 billion yuan,aluminum capacity will be reduced to 9million tonnes;before 2020 it will no longer add new capacity.
基金The authors acknowledge financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China （71173020）, and the Visiting Research Scholarship （20123013） awarded to Chunjin Chen by the China Scholarship Council. We would like to thank Yongmei Hu and Yuhong Du for valuable comments.
文摘China＇s market-oriented reform is expected to strengthen the role of the market in allocating resources, which raises concerns over the impact of market transformation on income distribution and earnings inequality in the past decades. This paper decomposes the sources of inequality based on the newly developed Shapley value approach and examines the contributions of the market, along with other nonmarket factors, to total inequality. Using the China Health and Nutrition Survey data over the period 1989-2009, we find that the income gap between laborers with a higher level of education and those with a lower level has widened since the transformational reforms of the economy. Our results suggest that the largest contribution of changes in income inequality can be attributed to the increase in returns to education, while the relative contributions of the household registration （hukou） system, type of sector ownership, geographic location, and gender to inequality experienced a downward trend between 1989 and 2009. The authors argue that rising income inequality is the consequence of efficiency improvements and an imperfect economic system, and that the market is a decisive force in economic development as it releases competitive signals and creates incentive mechanisms for innovation. Creating a more efficient labor market and increasing investment in human capital, particularly equalizing educational opportunities and improving the quality of education in lagging rural and inland regions to disadvantaged groups, are significant for an equitable distribution of income and sustainable development in the long run.
