With the progressive expansion of hydrogen fuel demand,hydrogen pipelines,hydrogen storage cylinders and hydrogen refuelling stations(HRSs)are the primary components of hydrogen energy systems that face high-pressure ...With the progressive expansion of hydrogen fuel demand,hydrogen pipelines,hydrogen storage cylinders and hydrogen refuelling stations(HRSs)are the primary components of hydrogen energy systems that face high-pressure hydrogen environments.Hydrogen embrittlement(HE)is a typical phenomenon in metallic materials,particularly in the high-pressure hydrogen environment,that causes loss of ductility and potentially catastrophic failure.HE is associated with materials,the service environment and stress.The primary mechanisms for explaining the HE of materials are hydrogen-enhanced decohesion,hydrogen-induced phase transformation,hydrogen-enhanced local plasticity,adsorption-induced dislocation emission and hydrogen-enhanced strain-induced vacancy.To reduce the risk of HE for metallic structural materials used in hydrogen energy systems,it is crucial to reasonably select hydrogen-resistant materials for high-pressure hydrogen environments.This paper summarizes HE phenomena,mechanisms and current problems for the metallic structural materials of hydrogen energy systems.A research perspective is also proposed,mainly focusing on metal structural materials for hydrogen pipelines,hydrogen storage cylinders and hydrogen compressors in HRSs from an application perspective.展开更多
Detailed description is given for a hypothetical US hydrogen economy with solar and wind energy supplying virtually all current energy needs and with electrolytic hydrogen the energy carrier and storage medium.Fossil ...Detailed description is given for a hypothetical US hydrogen economy with solar and wind energy supplying virtually all current energy needs and with electrolytic hydrogen the energy carrier and storage medium.Fossil fuels provide nonfuel products(plastics,chemicals,cement and asphalt).Only current technologies are considered and hydrogen storage accommodates generation intermit-tency and variability,using pit storage of high-pressure vessels in open air,yielding daily storage round-trip energy installation costs of 722 and 538$/kWh for electric and thermal,respectively;and for power,2351 and 2240$/kW for electric and thermal,respectively.For long-duration storage,the costs are 94.1 and 23.8$/kWh and 937 and 845$/kW,respectively.Increased energy generation 20%over baseline accommodates low-season generation,obviates much required storage and ensures that reserves are topped off;96%of US 2022 total energy consumption is provided for.In the default scenario(demand energy portions:half photovoltaic,quarter on-shore wind and quarter offshore wind),the surface area for the farms(including offshore surface)requires~4.6%of the US 48-state land area.About 350 pit storage sites provide both daily and long-duration storage,with the latter accounting for complete loss of generation for 4 days over a quarter of the nation.Hydrogen pipelines and a renewed electric grid transmit and distribute energy.The installation cost of the public infrastructure is~$27.8 trillion for the default scenario.Alternative scenarios show significant in-frastructure and cost savings when batteries are used for transportation and/or utility storage,provided current insufficiencies can be overcome.Broadly,cost levels in money,surface and infrastructure are within existing levels already achieved in historical events and modern living.展开更多
基金supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (grant no.2019YFB1505201).
文摘With the progressive expansion of hydrogen fuel demand,hydrogen pipelines,hydrogen storage cylinders and hydrogen refuelling stations(HRSs)are the primary components of hydrogen energy systems that face high-pressure hydrogen environments.Hydrogen embrittlement(HE)is a typical phenomenon in metallic materials,particularly in the high-pressure hydrogen environment,that causes loss of ductility and potentially catastrophic failure.HE is associated with materials,the service environment and stress.The primary mechanisms for explaining the HE of materials are hydrogen-enhanced decohesion,hydrogen-induced phase transformation,hydrogen-enhanced local plasticity,adsorption-induced dislocation emission and hydrogen-enhanced strain-induced vacancy.To reduce the risk of HE for metallic structural materials used in hydrogen energy systems,it is crucial to reasonably select hydrogen-resistant materials for high-pressure hydrogen environments.This paper summarizes HE phenomena,mechanisms and current problems for the metallic structural materials of hydrogen energy systems.A research perspective is also proposed,mainly focusing on metal structural materials for hydrogen pipelines,hydrogen storage cylinders and hydrogen compressors in HRSs from an application perspective.
文摘Detailed description is given for a hypothetical US hydrogen economy with solar and wind energy supplying virtually all current energy needs and with electrolytic hydrogen the energy carrier and storage medium.Fossil fuels provide nonfuel products(plastics,chemicals,cement and asphalt).Only current technologies are considered and hydrogen storage accommodates generation intermit-tency and variability,using pit storage of high-pressure vessels in open air,yielding daily storage round-trip energy installation costs of 722 and 538$/kWh for electric and thermal,respectively;and for power,2351 and 2240$/kW for electric and thermal,respectively.For long-duration storage,the costs are 94.1 and 23.8$/kWh and 937 and 845$/kW,respectively.Increased energy generation 20%over baseline accommodates low-season generation,obviates much required storage and ensures that reserves are topped off;96%of US 2022 total energy consumption is provided for.In the default scenario(demand energy portions:half photovoltaic,quarter on-shore wind and quarter offshore wind),the surface area for the farms(including offshore surface)requires~4.6%of the US 48-state land area.About 350 pit storage sites provide both daily and long-duration storage,with the latter accounting for complete loss of generation for 4 days over a quarter of the nation.Hydrogen pipelines and a renewed electric grid transmit and distribute energy.The installation cost of the public infrastructure is~$27.8 trillion for the default scenario.Alternative scenarios show significant in-frastructure and cost savings when batteries are used for transportation and/or utility storage,provided current insufficiencies can be overcome.Broadly,cost levels in money,surface and infrastructure are within existing levels already achieved in historical events and modern living.
