Models of optimal escape strategy predict that animals should move away when the costs of fleeing （metabolic and opportunity costs） are outweighed by the costs of remaining. These theoretical models predict that mor...Models of optimal escape strategy predict that animals should move away when the costs of fleeing （metabolic and opportunity costs） are outweighed by the costs of remaining. These theoretical models predict that more vulnerable individuals should be more reactive, moving away when an approaching threat is further away. We tested whether escape behaviour （includ- ing ＇escape calling＇） ofLithobates sphenocephalus approached by a human was influenced by body size or the initial microhabi- tat that the individual was found in. Irrespective of their size, frogs in the open tended to remain immobile, enhancing their cryp- sis. Frogs in cover showed different responses according to their body size, but, contrary to our initial predictions, larger frogs showed greater responsiveness （longer flight initiation distance and distances fled） than small frogs. Small frogs tended to remain closer to water and escaped into water, while larger individuals were more likely to jump to terrestrial cover and call during escape. Density of frogs near the focal animal had no effect on escape behaviour. This study indicates a range of escape responses in this species and points to the importance of divergent escape choices for organisms which live on the edge of different environments .展开更多
The small formicoxenine ant Temnothorax saxonicus was known from about 40 localities in Central Europe nesting in anorganie substrates on floor of xerothermous forests whereas investigations of 198 tree canopies in 19...The small formicoxenine ant Temnothorax saxonicus was known from about 40 localities in Central Europe nesting in anorganie substrates on floor of xerothermous forests whereas investigations of 198 tree canopies in 19 forest sites of the same region provided no indication for arboreal nesting or foraging. We present the first evidence for canopy-nesting populations of T. saxonicus on old Quercus trees in 3 sites having maximum calibrated topsoil temperatures of 17.9 ± 0.3 ℃ which were significantly （P 〈 0.007） lower than 22.8 ± 2.0 ℃ measured in 5 sites with ground-nesting populations. The thermal deficit on forest floor inhibits brood development in ground nests and caused a moving to canopy were maximum calibrated temperatures of the, now wooden, substrates are at least 26.1 ℃for the whole canopy and 30.8 ℃ in more sun-exposed spots. T. saxonieus competed here successfully with the obligatory canopy ants T. affinis and T. cortiealis. The distributional data of this rope-climbing study support former results that highest nest densities of small arboreal ants occur in temperate climate over the entire canopy mantle of single trees situated in open land or in park-like environments but occur in the top of the canopy in tree stands with high degree of canopy closure.展开更多
We quantified microhabitat use by white-footed mice Peromyscus leucopus in forest and old-field habitats occupied by Morrow＇ s honeysuckle Lonicera morrowii, an invasive exotic shrub imported from Japan. Microhabitat...We quantified microhabitat use by white-footed mice Peromyscus leucopus in forest and old-field habitats occupied by Morrow＇ s honeysuckle Lonicera morrowii, an invasive exotic shrub imported from Japan. Microhabitat characteristics were compared between trails used by mice （ n = 124） and randomly selected trails （ n = 127） in 4 study plots located at Fort Necessity National Battlefield, Farmington, Pennsylvania, USA. We compared 10 mierohabitat variables between used and random trails using non-metric multidimensional scaling （NMDS） and classification and regression tree （CART） analysis. Trails used by mice were statistically different from randomly selected trails in both forested plots （ P 〈 0. 008） and old-field plots （ P 〈 0. 001 ）. In the forested plots, trails of white-footed mice were more often associated with a greater percent cover （% cover） of coarse woody debris （CWD） than were randomly selected trails. In the old-field plots, mouse trails were commonly characterized by having a lower % cover of exotic herbaceous vegetation, a greater % cover of shrubs, and a greater % cover of Morrow＇ s honeysuckle than randomly selected trails. Our study indicates that white-footed mice do not move randomly and prefer areas of high structural complexity, thereby showing significant microhabitat preference. The preference of white-footed mice for areas with a relatively high percent cover of Morrow＇s honeysuckle could 1 ） be a factor in the aggressive nature of the exotic honeysuckle shrub＇s spread throughout the Battlefield or 2） cause the shrub to spread even faster into adjacent areas not yet occupied by Morrow＇ s honeysuckle展开更多
文摘Models of optimal escape strategy predict that animals should move away when the costs of fleeing （metabolic and opportunity costs） are outweighed by the costs of remaining. These theoretical models predict that more vulnerable individuals should be more reactive, moving away when an approaching threat is further away. We tested whether escape behaviour （includ- ing ＇escape calling＇） ofLithobates sphenocephalus approached by a human was influenced by body size or the initial microhabi- tat that the individual was found in. Irrespective of their size, frogs in the open tended to remain immobile, enhancing their cryp- sis. Frogs in cover showed different responses according to their body size, but, contrary to our initial predictions, larger frogs showed greater responsiveness （longer flight initiation distance and distances fled） than small frogs. Small frogs tended to remain closer to water and escaped into water, while larger individuals were more likely to jump to terrestrial cover and call during escape. Density of frogs near the focal animal had no effect on escape behaviour. This study indicates a range of escape responses in this species and points to the importance of divergent escape choices for organisms which live on the edge of different environments .
文摘The small formicoxenine ant Temnothorax saxonicus was known from about 40 localities in Central Europe nesting in anorganie substrates on floor of xerothermous forests whereas investigations of 198 tree canopies in 19 forest sites of the same region provided no indication for arboreal nesting or foraging. We present the first evidence for canopy-nesting populations of T. saxonicus on old Quercus trees in 3 sites having maximum calibrated topsoil temperatures of 17.9 ± 0.3 ℃ which were significantly （P 〈 0.007） lower than 22.8 ± 2.0 ℃ measured in 5 sites with ground-nesting populations. The thermal deficit on forest floor inhibits brood development in ground nests and caused a moving to canopy were maximum calibrated temperatures of the, now wooden, substrates are at least 26.1 ℃for the whole canopy and 30.8 ℃ in more sun-exposed spots. T. saxonieus competed here successfully with the obligatory canopy ants T. affinis and T. cortiealis. The distributional data of this rope-climbing study support former results that highest nest densities of small arboreal ants occur in temperate climate over the entire canopy mantle of single trees situated in open land or in park-like environments but occur in the top of the canopy in tree stands with high degree of canopy closure.
基金the National Park Service, U. S. Department of the Interior
文摘We quantified microhabitat use by white-footed mice Peromyscus leucopus in forest and old-field habitats occupied by Morrow＇ s honeysuckle Lonicera morrowii, an invasive exotic shrub imported from Japan. Microhabitat characteristics were compared between trails used by mice （ n = 124） and randomly selected trails （ n = 127） in 4 study plots located at Fort Necessity National Battlefield, Farmington, Pennsylvania, USA. We compared 10 mierohabitat variables between used and random trails using non-metric multidimensional scaling （NMDS） and classification and regression tree （CART） analysis. Trails used by mice were statistically different from randomly selected trails in both forested plots （ P 〈 0. 008） and old-field plots （ P 〈 0. 001 ）. In the forested plots, trails of white-footed mice were more often associated with a greater percent cover （% cover） of coarse woody debris （CWD） than were randomly selected trails. In the old-field plots, mouse trails were commonly characterized by having a lower % cover of exotic herbaceous vegetation, a greater % cover of shrubs, and a greater % cover of Morrow＇ s honeysuckle than randomly selected trails. Our study indicates that white-footed mice do not move randomly and prefer areas of high structural complexity, thereby showing significant microhabitat preference. The preference of white-footed mice for areas with a relatively high percent cover of Morrow＇s honeysuckle could 1 ） be a factor in the aggressive nature of the exotic honeysuckle shrub＇s spread throughout the Battlefield or 2） cause the shrub to spread even faster into adjacent areas not yet occupied by Morrow＇ s honeysuckle
