Understanding of ecosystem resilience and stability requires comprehending predator- prey dynamics because ecosystems consist of dynamically interacting subsystems that include predator-prey relationships. This relati...Understanding of ecosystem resilience and stability requires comprehending predator- prey dynamics because ecosystems consist of dynamically interacting subsystems that include predator-prey relationships. This relationship is closely related to the hunting- escaping strategies employed by the predator and prey. Therefore, understanding the effects of hunting and escaping strategies on ecosystems will lead to a better under- standing of these systems. As an approach for describing the predator-prey interaction, lattice-based models have been adopted because this approach has strong advantages for simulating various dynamical processes of individual-individual interaction. In the models, each lattice cell is either considered as an attractive/repulsive cell, or an indi- vidual cell, or else it is empty. The attractive （or repulsive cell） can be interpreted as the prey （or predator） of the individual. These states allow us to incorporate the ecological processes of local antagonistic interactions, namely the spread of disturbances （by the predator） and regrowth or recovery （by the prey）. These processes are directly related to the strategic behavior of individuals, such as hunting and escaping. In this study, we suggest a simple and effective mapping formula as a stochastic rule to describe the hunt- ing and escaping behavior. This formula could be widely used not only in the behavior but also in competitive and cooperative relationships.展开更多
Escape theory has been exceptionally successful in conceptualizing and accurately predicting effects of numerous factors that affect predation risk and explaining variation in flight initiation distance(FID;predator–...Escape theory has been exceptionally successful in conceptualizing and accurately predicting effects of numerous factors that affect predation risk and explaining variation in flight initiation distance(FID;predator–prey distance when escape begins).Less explored is the relative orientation of an approaching predator,prey,and its eventual refuge.The relationship between an approaching threat and its refuge can be expressed as an angle we call the“interpath angle”or“Φ,”which describes the angle between the paths of predator and prey to the prey’s refuge and thus expresses the degree to which prey must run toward an approaching predator.In general,we might expect that prey would escape at greater distances if they must flee toward a predator to reach its burrow.The“race for life”model makes formal predictions about howΦshould affect FID.We evaluated the model by studying escape decisions in yellow-bellied marmots Marmota flaviventer,a species which flees to burrows.We found support for some of the model’s predictions,yet the relationship betweenΦand FID was less clear.Marmots may not assessΦin a continuous fashion;but we found that binning angle into 445°bins explained a similar amount of variation as models that analyzed angle continuously.Future studies ofΦ,especially those that focus on how different species perceive relative orientation,will likely enhance our understanding of its importance in flight decisions.展开更多
Brood parasites such as the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus exploit the parental abilities of their hosts,hosts avoid brood parasitism and predation by showing specific behavior such as loss of feathers,emission of fear...Brood parasites such as the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus exploit the parental abilities of their hosts,hosts avoid brood parasitism and predation by showing specific behavior such as loss of feathers,emission of fear screams and contact calls,displaying wriggle behavior to avoid hosts or potential prey,pecking at hosts and prey,and expressing tonic immobility(showing behavior like feigning death or rapid escape from predators and brood parasites).These aspects of escape behavior are consistent for individuals but also among sites,seasons,and years.Escape behavior expressed in response to a broad range of cuckoo hosts and prey are consistently used against capture by humans,but also hosts and brood parasites and predators and their prey.An interspecific comparative phylogenetic analysis of escape behavior by hosts and their brood parasites and prey and their predators revealed evidence of consistent behavior when encountering potential parasites or predators.We hypothesize that personality axes such as those ranging from fearfulness to being bold,and from neophobic to curiosity response in brood parasites constitute important components of defense against brood parasitism that reduces the overall risk of parasitism.展开更多
Biological invasions threaten biodiversity worldwide,and therefore,understanding the traits of successful invaders could mitigate their spread.Many comm only invasive species do well in disturbed habitats,such as urba...Biological invasions threaten biodiversity worldwide,and therefore,understanding the traits of successful invaders could mitigate their spread.Many comm only invasive species do well in disturbed habitats,such as urban environments,and their abilities to effectively respond to disturbarices could con tribute to their invasiveness.Yet,there are non invasive species that also do well in disturbed habitats.The question remains whether urban invaders behave differently in urban environments than noninvaders,which could suggest an"urban-exploiting"phenotype.In Southern California,the co-occurrence of in vasive Italia n wall lizards Pod arc is siculus,brown anoles Anolis sagrei,and green anoles A.carolinensis,and native western fence lizards Sceloporus occidentalis offers an opportunity to test whether invasives exhibit consistent differences in risk-taking within human-altered habitats compared with a native species.We predicted that invasive lizards would exhibit more bold behavior by having shorter flight-initiation distances(FIDs)and by being found farther from a refuge(behaviors that would presumably maximize foraging in low-risk environments).Invasive populations had similar or longer FIDs,but were consistently found at distances closer to a refuge.Collectively,invasive lizards in urban habitats were not bolder than a native species.Relianee on nearby refuges might help species successfully invade urban habitats,and if a general pattern,may pose an added challenge in detecting or eliminating them.展开更多
文摘Understanding of ecosystem resilience and stability requires comprehending predator- prey dynamics because ecosystems consist of dynamically interacting subsystems that include predator-prey relationships. This relationship is closely related to the hunting- escaping strategies employed by the predator and prey. Therefore, understanding the effects of hunting and escaping strategies on ecosystems will lead to a better under- standing of these systems. As an approach for describing the predator-prey interaction, lattice-based models have been adopted because this approach has strong advantages for simulating various dynamical processes of individual-individual interaction. In the models, each lattice cell is either considered as an attractive/repulsive cell, or an indi- vidual cell, or else it is empty. The attractive （or repulsive cell） can be interpreted as the prey （or predator） of the individual. These states allow us to incorporate the ecological processes of local antagonistic interactions, namely the spread of disturbances （by the predator） and regrowth or recovery （by the prey）. These processes are directly related to the strategic behavior of individuals, such as hunting and escaping. In this study, we suggest a simple and effective mapping formula as a stochastic rule to describe the hunt- ing and escaping behavior. This formula could be widely used not only in the behavior but also in competitive and cooperative relationships.
基金K.W.was supported by the National Science Foundation’s Research Experience for Undergraduates grant program(DBI 126713 to the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory)as well as the University of Connecticut Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Katie Bu Undergraduate Research Award.J.G.was supported by the Rocky Mountain Biological LaboratoryD.T.B.was supported by the National Science Foundation(DEB-1119660 and 1557130 to D.T.B.as well as DBI-126713 to the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory).
文摘Escape theory has been exceptionally successful in conceptualizing and accurately predicting effects of numerous factors that affect predation risk and explaining variation in flight initiation distance(FID;predator–prey distance when escape begins).Less explored is the relative orientation of an approaching predator,prey,and its eventual refuge.The relationship between an approaching threat and its refuge can be expressed as an angle we call the“interpath angle”or“Φ,”which describes the angle between the paths of predator and prey to the prey’s refuge and thus expresses the degree to which prey must run toward an approaching predator.In general,we might expect that prey would escape at greater distances if they must flee toward a predator to reach its burrow.The“race for life”model makes formal predictions about howΦshould affect FID.We evaluated the model by studying escape decisions in yellow-bellied marmots Marmota flaviventer,a species which flees to burrows.We found support for some of the model’s predictions,yet the relationship betweenΦand FID was less clear.Marmots may not assessΦin a continuous fashion;but we found that binning angle into 445°bins explained a similar amount of variation as models that analyzed angle continuously.Future studies ofΦ,especially those that focus on how different species perceive relative orientation,will likely enhance our understanding of its importance in flight decisions.
文摘Brood parasites such as the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus exploit the parental abilities of their hosts,hosts avoid brood parasitism and predation by showing specific behavior such as loss of feathers,emission of fear screams and contact calls,displaying wriggle behavior to avoid hosts or potential prey,pecking at hosts and prey,and expressing tonic immobility(showing behavior like feigning death or rapid escape from predators and brood parasites).These aspects of escape behavior are consistent for individuals but also among sites,seasons,and years.Escape behavior expressed in response to a broad range of cuckoo hosts and prey are consistently used against capture by humans,but also hosts and brood parasites and predators and their prey.An interspecific comparative phylogenetic analysis of escape behavior by hosts and their brood parasites and prey and their predators revealed evidence of consistent behavior when encountering potential parasites or predators.We hypothesize that personality axes such as those ranging from fearfulness to being bold,and from neophobic to curiosity response in brood parasites constitute important components of defense against brood parasitism that reduces the overall risk of parasitism.
基金This work was supported by the Urban Nature Research Center at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County,and the National Science Foundation through a Postdoctoral Research Fellowship in Biology(DBI-1611562 to B.J.P.).
文摘Biological invasions threaten biodiversity worldwide,and therefore,understanding the traits of successful invaders could mitigate their spread.Many comm only invasive species do well in disturbed habitats,such as urban environments,and their abilities to effectively respond to disturbarices could con tribute to their invasiveness.Yet,there are non invasive species that also do well in disturbed habitats.The question remains whether urban invaders behave differently in urban environments than noninvaders,which could suggest an"urban-exploiting"phenotype.In Southern California,the co-occurrence of in vasive Italia n wall lizards Pod arc is siculus,brown anoles Anolis sagrei,and green anoles A.carolinensis,and native western fence lizards Sceloporus occidentalis offers an opportunity to test whether invasives exhibit consistent differences in risk-taking within human-altered habitats compared with a native species.We predicted that invasive lizards would exhibit more bold behavior by having shorter flight-initiation distances(FIDs)and by being found farther from a refuge(behaviors that would presumably maximize foraging in low-risk environments).Invasive populations had similar or longer FIDs,but were consistently found at distances closer to a refuge.Collectively,invasive lizards in urban habitats were not bolder than a native species.Relianee on nearby refuges might help species successfully invade urban habitats,and if a general pattern,may pose an added challenge in detecting or eliminating them.
