The objective of this work was to draw up an inventory of environmental and anthropogenic factors linked to indigenous breeding practices of guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) influenced by plumage characteristics. The in...The objective of this work was to draw up an inventory of environmental and anthropogenic factors linked to indigenous breeding practices of guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) influenced by plumage characteristics. The information was collected using the snowball technique and using a formal questionnaire developed (AU-IBAR, 2015). The dominant plumage is pearl gray with a frequency of 38.89% followed by black (13.85%). In total, 154 adult animals were lost by operators with a frequency of 22.95%. According to plumage, white comes first with a frequency of 51.61% followed by Lavender plumage (36.58%). Predation is the major constraint with a frequency of 35.72%. The guinea fowl most targeted by predators are the white guinea fowl with a frequency of 56.25%, while predation is low for black plumage (25%), royal purple (33.34) and pearl gray (34.69). The pearl gray guinea fowl and the royal purple guinea fowl appear to have a more developed wild instinct, which explains the frequency of recorded escapes. White plumage is perceived as being more docile during breeding and tends to exhibit better resistance to heat stress compared to other phenotypes, making it more valued for traditional rituals. Dark plumage seems more sought after in breeding for its supposed prolificacy, its resistance to infections and its weight. According to breeders, the dominance relationship mainly depends on the number of individuals of the same plumage. Dark plumage in significant numbers in most flocks seems to have dominance in terms of food and choice of sexual partners, which would explain their large numbers.展开更多
采用PCR测序与PCR-RFLP技术,研究了SLC24A5基因变异与他留乌骨鸡羽色及肤色的关系。通过对他留乌骨鸡麻羽、白羽和黑羽3个品系以及乌骨与非乌骨2个类型的SLC24A5基因个体测序,共检测到19个SNP位点,其中3个位点引起氨基酸变异。采用每个...采用PCR测序与PCR-RFLP技术,研究了SLC24A5基因变异与他留乌骨鸡羽色及肤色的关系。通过对他留乌骨鸡麻羽、白羽和黑羽3个品系以及乌骨与非乌骨2个类型的SLC24A5基因个体测序,共检测到19个SNP位点,其中3个位点引起氨基酸变异。采用每个品系或类型PCR扩增池测序技术,确定了每个SNP位点在不同品系或类型的基因频率,在分析基因频率差异及SNP变异特性的基础上,针对G482C位点,建立了Nhe I mismatch PCR-RFLP分子标记。利用该遗传标记对所有受试个体进行基因分型,并分析其与羽色肤色性状的相关性。结果表明,SLC24A5基因Nhe I mismatch PCR-RFLP分子标记与肤色性状显著相关。展开更多
Adaptive mate choice has been accepted as the leading theory to explain the colorful plumage of birds.This theory hypothesizes that conspicuous colors act as signals to advertise the qualities of the owners.However,a ...Adaptive mate choice has been accepted as the leading theory to explain the colorful plumage of birds.This theory hypothesizes that conspicuous colors act as signals to advertise the qualities of the owners.However,a dilemma arises in that conspicuous colors may not only attract mates,but also alert predators.The"private channels of communication"hypothesis proposes that some intraspecific signals may not be visible to heterospecific animals because of different visual systems.To better understand the evolution of plumage colors and sexual selection in birds,here we studied the chromatic difference and achromatic differences of melanin-and carotenoid-based plumage coloration in five minivet species(Pericrocotus spp.)under conspecific and predator visual systems.We found that either the chromatic or achromatic difference among male or female minivets’plumage was consistently higher under conspecific vision than under predator vision for all five studied species of minivets.This result indicated that individual differences in plumage colors of minivets were visible to the conspecific receivers and hidden from potential predators as a result of evolution under predation risk and conspecific communication.However,males were under a higher risk of predation because they were more conspicuous than females to the vision of a nocturnal predator.展开更多
Background: Accurate estimation of nestlings’ age is essential in avian demography studies as well as in population ecology and conservation. For example, it can be useful for synchronizing nest visits with events of...Background: Accurate estimation of nestlings’ age is essential in avian demography studies as well as in population ecology and conservation. For example, it can be useful for synchronizing nest visits with events of particular interest, such as the age at which young can be safely ringed, or in choosing the best period to attain the most accurate calculation of laying or hatching dates.Methods: We constructed a photographic guide for aging European Bee-eaters(Merops apiaster) nestlings to 3-day age classes and evaluated the aging method by performing a validation exercise with several observers with no previous experience in aging bee-eater nestlings.Results: The aging guide for bee-eater nestlings allowed estimating age to within 3 days with an average accuracy of 0.85. We found the optimal period for aging nestlings was between days 13-18(with accuracy between 0.94 and 0.99), during which the status of feather development was more easily distinguishable from the preceding and subsequent age classes. During the first 3 days after hatching, nestlings could also be aged with high accuracy(0.93). The small size of the nestling in relation to the eggs and the nestling’s inability to raise its head during these first days allowed for good discrimination from the subsequent age class. Between days 25 and 28, nestlings were correctly aged in only half of assignments(0.55 sensitivity) and nestlings belonging to class 7(days 7-9) were the least correctly identified(0.38 sensitivity). However, by visiting the nests at 12 days intervals it is possible to achieve the highest accuracy in age estimation with the smallest disturbance and logistic investment.Conclusions: This study highlighted how indirect methods and a simple protocol can be established and employed to quickly estimate nestling age in cases where handling nestlings is challenging or impossible, while minimizing disturbance in and around the nest.展开更多
In order to evaluate the effect of phenotype and quail age on laying rate and egg characteristics, a study has been carried out in Ngaoundéré from February to August 2019. 216 quails were divided into 36 bat...In order to evaluate the effect of phenotype and quail age on laying rate and egg characteristics, a study has been carried out in Ngaoundéré from February to August 2019. 216 quails were divided into 36 batches of 6 animals each (5 females and 1 male) according to age and phenotype. The experimental animals were white, spotted white, grey and brown phenotypes and were one, six and ten months old. Eggs were collected for three weeks between 8<span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm</span><span style="font-family:Verdana;"> - </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">4</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm and 4</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">-</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">8</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm, counted, weighed and measured. 15 eggs per phenotype were randomly selected, broken individually, which allowed the internal parameters to be evaluated. The main results show that the quails laid more eggs between 4</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">-</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">8</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm, the highest laying rate was obtained in quails at one moth of laying</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:;" "=""><span style="font-family:Verdana;">and the spotted white phenotype had a high laying rate </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">(74.03%) compared to other phenotypes. At one month of breeding age, quails with the spotted white phenotype showed a higher laying rate</span><span style="font-family展开更多
The resemblance of some parasitic cuckoos to Accipiter hawks has been known since ancient times. Recent experiments show that the hawk-like features of Common Cuckoos (Cuculus canorus) facilitate access to Reed Warble...The resemblance of some parasitic cuckoos to Accipiter hawks has been known since ancient times. Recent experiments show that the hawk-like features of Common Cuckoos (Cuculus canorus) facilitate access to Reed Warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus) host nests. However, social information alerts hosts to see through the cuckoo’s mimetic disguise. In turn, this has promoted the evolution of a cuckoo polymorphism to thwart host recognition. Here we show by comparative analyses that parasitic cuckoos with hawk-like features (yellow eyes, barred underparts, yellow legs) are more likely to be polymorphic (29% of species) than those without (8% of species). Phylogenetic analyses confirm correlated evolution of hawk-like features and cuckoo polymorphism. We suggest that mimicry dynamics are particularly likely to promote the evolution of various guises in parasitic cuckoos to beat host defences.展开更多
Sex differences in plumage color are common in bird species.Some bird species are regarded as sexually monochromatic in human visual systems,and in recent years,some species are found to be of cryptic(to human)sexual ...Sex differences in plumage color are common in bird species.Some bird species are regarded as sexually monochromatic in human visual systems,and in recent years,some species are found to be of cryptic(to human)sexual dichromatism by spectrophotometric techniques.However,the functions of plumage color are still less understood in these species.Here,we focused on plumage color traits in the Chestnut Thrush(Turdus rubrocanus),which is considered as a sexually monochromatic bird by human observers.We used spectrometer analyses and avian visual modeling to investigate the color traits of males and females,and whether these color traits are involved in assortative mating.We found that Chestnut Thrush showed sexual dichromatism in bill,throat and wing,and pairs mated assortatively with colorations of throat,chest,crown and wing.We also found that color of tarsus was different between two consecutive years.These results revealed that Chestnut Thrush is sexually dichromatic in the avian visual system,and plumage color traits play important roles in mate choice.展开更多
Background: This paper describes the chick plumage of spurfowl(Pternistis) and francolin(Francolinus, Dendroperdix Peliperdix and Scleroptila) chicks, tests its significance for phylogenetic relationships and also exp...Background: This paper describes the chick plumage of spurfowl(Pternistis) and francolin(Francolinus, Dendroperdix Peliperdix and Scleroptila) chicks, tests its significance for phylogenetic relationships and also explores the patterns of character evolution in the francolin and spurfowl lineages.Previously regarded as monophyletic, the two evolutionar?ily distant clades are now divided into five genera.Questions considered were whether chick plumage supports the dichotomy between spurfowls and francolins and what role habitat matching plays.Methods: The study was based mainly on photographs of chick skins from the American Museum of Natural History and the Natural History Museum at Tring.Eight plumage characters were selected for comparative scoring, summa?rised in a matrix.These characters were subsequently analysed phylogenetically and their evolution was traced on the existing molecular phylogeny using a parsimony approach.Results: Based on chick plumage the phylogeny of species groups among francolins and spurfowls, was largely unresolved possibly ascribed to a high degree of symplesiomorphy inherent among the Phasianids.This possibly could have resulted in a high degree of polytomy particularly among the spurfowls and francolins.Furthermore, the ancestral state reconstructions revealed high prevalence of symplesiomorphic states and reversals which do not help in the classification of groups.Although the differences are described that separate some African francolins from spurfowls, other francolins(in Asia and Africa) share remarkably similar characteristics with spurfowls.Plain dark dorsal plumage is probably advantageous for avoiding detection by predators in forests, while facial stripes optimise the breaking of body shapes in dense grass cover(as in Scleroptila spp.) and semi?striped faces are advantageous for stationary camouflage under tree and bush cover(as in Pternistis spp.).Conclusions: Although symplesiomorphy is a hereditary explanation for downy colours and patterns, the traits rel?evant for ha展开更多
A surface variable, density of water-feather touching points （Dp） was proposed in this paper to express surface property of water repellency of contour feather. Tests in 29 species using breast contour feathers indi...A surface variable, density of water-feather touching points （Dp） was proposed in this paper to express surface property of water repellency of contour feather. Tests in 29 species using breast contour feathers indicated that Dp was small in tericolous species, medium in wading and diving species, large in swimming species, with only a few exceptions. This implied that birds achieve appropriate Dp by optimizing the microstructure of feather to meet the requirement of water repellency. Therefore, Dp was a morphological marker linking structure and function of feather in studies of adaptive evolution of birds.展开更多
Background:Parrots(Psittacidae Family)are one of the most colorful groups of birds in the world,their colors pro-duced both structurally and via unusual pigments(psittacofulvins).Most species are considered to be mono...Background:Parrots(Psittacidae Family)are one of the most colorful groups of birds in the world,their colors pro-duced both structurally and via unusual pigments(psittacofulvins).Most species are considered to be monogamous,and many have been viewed historically as sexually monomorphic and monochromatic.However,studies using morphometric analysis and spectrophotometric techniques have revealed sexual size dimorphism and also sexual plumage color dimorphism among some species.The Monk Parakeet(Myiopsitta monachus),a native parrot of South America,is an interesting species for the study of plumage coloration and size since it is considered sexually mono-chromatic and monomorphic.Furthermore,recent studies show that the Monk Parakeet has extra-bond paternity behavior and even breeding trios,which suggests that sexual selection may play an important role in this species,and that it might have sexually dimorphic plumage(albeit imperceptible by humans)and be dimorphic in size.Methods:For the determination of plumage color we used spectrophotometry in the range of avian vision(300-700 nm)and performed a morphological analysis.Results:Our spectrophotometric results indicate that the Monk Parakeet shows subtle sexual plumage color dimor-phism in three(crown,nape and wing)out of twelve body regions.Similarly,our morphometric analysis showed that there are subtle sex differences in body size(bill and weight).Conclusions:Although the Monk Parakeet shows extra-bond paternity and breeding trio behaviors which could increase sexual dimorphism,these behaviors occur among highly related individuals;perhaps the high rate of inbreeding is responsible for the attenuation of sexual plumage color dimorphism and sex differences in body size observed.展开更多
文摘The objective of this work was to draw up an inventory of environmental and anthropogenic factors linked to indigenous breeding practices of guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) influenced by plumage characteristics. The information was collected using the snowball technique and using a formal questionnaire developed (AU-IBAR, 2015). The dominant plumage is pearl gray with a frequency of 38.89% followed by black (13.85%). In total, 154 adult animals were lost by operators with a frequency of 22.95%. According to plumage, white comes first with a frequency of 51.61% followed by Lavender plumage (36.58%). Predation is the major constraint with a frequency of 35.72%. The guinea fowl most targeted by predators are the white guinea fowl with a frequency of 56.25%, while predation is low for black plumage (25%), royal purple (33.34) and pearl gray (34.69). The pearl gray guinea fowl and the royal purple guinea fowl appear to have a more developed wild instinct, which explains the frequency of recorded escapes. White plumage is perceived as being more docile during breeding and tends to exhibit better resistance to heat stress compared to other phenotypes, making it more valued for traditional rituals. Dark plumage seems more sought after in breeding for its supposed prolificacy, its resistance to infections and its weight. According to breeders, the dominance relationship mainly depends on the number of individuals of the same plumage. Dark plumage in significant numbers in most flocks seems to have dominance in terms of food and choice of sexual partners, which would explain their large numbers.
文摘采用PCR测序与PCR-RFLP技术,研究了SLC24A5基因变异与他留乌骨鸡羽色及肤色的关系。通过对他留乌骨鸡麻羽、白羽和黑羽3个品系以及乌骨与非乌骨2个类型的SLC24A5基因个体测序,共检测到19个SNP位点,其中3个位点引起氨基酸变异。采用每个品系或类型PCR扩增池测序技术,确定了每个SNP位点在不同品系或类型的基因频率,在分析基因频率差异及SNP变异特性的基础上,针对G482C位点,建立了Nhe I mismatch PCR-RFLP分子标记。利用该遗传标记对所有受试个体进行基因分型,并分析其与羽色肤色性状的相关性。结果表明,SLC24A5基因Nhe I mismatch PCR-RFLP分子标记与肤色性状显著相关。
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32260127)the Education Department of Hainan Province(HnjgY2022-12)+1 种基金the Hainan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China(320CXTD437)the Hainan Provincial Innovative Research Program for Graduates(Qhys2022-241)。
文摘Adaptive mate choice has been accepted as the leading theory to explain the colorful plumage of birds.This theory hypothesizes that conspicuous colors act as signals to advertise the qualities of the owners.However,a dilemma arises in that conspicuous colors may not only attract mates,but also alert predators.The"private channels of communication"hypothesis proposes that some intraspecific signals may not be visible to heterospecific animals because of different visual systems.To better understand the evolution of plumage colors and sexual selection in birds,here we studied the chromatic difference and achromatic differences of melanin-and carotenoid-based plumage coloration in five minivet species(Pericrocotus spp.)under conspecific and predator visual systems.We found that either the chromatic or achromatic difference among male or female minivets’plumage was consistently higher under conspecific vision than under predator vision for all five studied species of minivets.This result indicated that individual differences in plumage colors of minivets were visible to the conspecific receivers and hidden from potential predators as a result of evolution under predation risk and conspecific communication.However,males were under a higher risk of predation because they were more conspicuous than females to the vision of a nocturnal predator.
基金funded by FCT with grants to JSC(SFRH/BD/113580/2015),JAA(SFRH/BPD/91527/2012),RC(SFRH/BPD/118635/2016)benefited from financial support to CESAM(UID/AMB/50017/2019),through national funds(FCT/MCTES).
文摘Background: Accurate estimation of nestlings’ age is essential in avian demography studies as well as in population ecology and conservation. For example, it can be useful for synchronizing nest visits with events of particular interest, such as the age at which young can be safely ringed, or in choosing the best period to attain the most accurate calculation of laying or hatching dates.Methods: We constructed a photographic guide for aging European Bee-eaters(Merops apiaster) nestlings to 3-day age classes and evaluated the aging method by performing a validation exercise with several observers with no previous experience in aging bee-eater nestlings.Results: The aging guide for bee-eater nestlings allowed estimating age to within 3 days with an average accuracy of 0.85. We found the optimal period for aging nestlings was between days 13-18(with accuracy between 0.94 and 0.99), during which the status of feather development was more easily distinguishable from the preceding and subsequent age classes. During the first 3 days after hatching, nestlings could also be aged with high accuracy(0.93). The small size of the nestling in relation to the eggs and the nestling’s inability to raise its head during these first days allowed for good discrimination from the subsequent age class. Between days 25 and 28, nestlings were correctly aged in only half of assignments(0.55 sensitivity) and nestlings belonging to class 7(days 7-9) were the least correctly identified(0.38 sensitivity). However, by visiting the nests at 12 days intervals it is possible to achieve the highest accuracy in age estimation with the smallest disturbance and logistic investment.Conclusions: This study highlighted how indirect methods and a simple protocol can be established and employed to quickly estimate nestling age in cases where handling nestlings is challenging or impossible, while minimizing disturbance in and around the nest.
文摘In order to evaluate the effect of phenotype and quail age on laying rate and egg characteristics, a study has been carried out in Ngaoundéré from February to August 2019. 216 quails were divided into 36 batches of 6 animals each (5 females and 1 male) according to age and phenotype. The experimental animals were white, spotted white, grey and brown phenotypes and were one, six and ten months old. Eggs were collected for three weeks between 8<span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm</span><span style="font-family:Verdana;"> - </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">4</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm and 4</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">-</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">8</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm, counted, weighed and measured. 15 eggs per phenotype were randomly selected, broken individually, which allowed the internal parameters to be evaluated. The main results show that the quails laid more eggs between 4</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">-</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">8</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">pm, the highest laying rate was obtained in quails at one moth of laying</span><span style="font-family:;" "=""> </span><span style="font-family:;" "=""><span style="font-family:Verdana;">and the spotted white phenotype had a high laying rate </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">(74.03%) compared to other phenotypes. At one month of breeding age, quails with the spotted white phenotype showed a higher laying rate</span><span style="font-family
基金funded by the Natural Environment Research Council
文摘The resemblance of some parasitic cuckoos to Accipiter hawks has been known since ancient times. Recent experiments show that the hawk-like features of Common Cuckoos (Cuculus canorus) facilitate access to Reed Warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus) host nests. However, social information alerts hosts to see through the cuckoo’s mimetic disguise. In turn, this has promoted the evolution of a cuckoo polymorphism to thwart host recognition. Here we show by comparative analyses that parasitic cuckoos with hawk-like features (yellow eyes, barred underparts, yellow legs) are more likely to be polymorphic (29% of species) than those without (8% of species). Phylogenetic analyses confirm correlated evolution of hawk-like features and cuckoo polymorphism. We suggest that mimicry dynamics are particularly likely to promote the evolution of various guises in parasitic cuckoos to beat host defences.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.32070452to YS)。
文摘Sex differences in plumage color are common in bird species.Some bird species are regarded as sexually monochromatic in human visual systems,and in recent years,some species are found to be of cryptic(to human)sexual dichromatism by spectrophotometric techniques.However,the functions of plumage color are still less understood in these species.Here,we focused on plumage color traits in the Chestnut Thrush(Turdus rubrocanus),which is considered as a sexually monochromatic bird by human observers.We used spectrometer analyses and avian visual modeling to investigate the color traits of males and females,and whether these color traits are involved in assortative mating.We found that Chestnut Thrush showed sexual dichromatism in bill,throat and wing,and pairs mated assortatively with colorations of throat,chest,crown and wing.We also found that color of tarsus was different between two consecutive years.These results revealed that Chestnut Thrush is sexually dichromatic in the avian visual system,and plumage color traits play important roles in mate choice.
文摘Background: This paper describes the chick plumage of spurfowl(Pternistis) and francolin(Francolinus, Dendroperdix Peliperdix and Scleroptila) chicks, tests its significance for phylogenetic relationships and also explores the patterns of character evolution in the francolin and spurfowl lineages.Previously regarded as monophyletic, the two evolutionar?ily distant clades are now divided into five genera.Questions considered were whether chick plumage supports the dichotomy between spurfowls and francolins and what role habitat matching plays.Methods: The study was based mainly on photographs of chick skins from the American Museum of Natural History and the Natural History Museum at Tring.Eight plumage characters were selected for comparative scoring, summa?rised in a matrix.These characters were subsequently analysed phylogenetically and their evolution was traced on the existing molecular phylogeny using a parsimony approach.Results: Based on chick plumage the phylogeny of species groups among francolins and spurfowls, was largely unresolved possibly ascribed to a high degree of symplesiomorphy inherent among the Phasianids.This possibly could have resulted in a high degree of polytomy particularly among the spurfowls and francolins.Furthermore, the ancestral state reconstructions revealed high prevalence of symplesiomorphic states and reversals which do not help in the classification of groups.Although the differences are described that separate some African francolins from spurfowls, other francolins(in Asia and Africa) share remarkably similar characteristics with spurfowls.Plain dark dorsal plumage is probably advantageous for avoiding detection by predators in forests, while facial stripes optimise the breaking of body shapes in dense grass cover(as in Scleroptila spp.) and semi?striped faces are advantageous for stationary camouflage under tree and bush cover(as in Pternistis spp.).Conclusions: Although symplesiomorphy is a hereditary explanation for downy colours and patterns, the traits rel?evant for ha
基金This study is supported by Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province (QC05072) and Fund for Scientific Research of Northeast Forestry University
文摘A surface variable, density of water-feather touching points （Dp） was proposed in this paper to express surface property of water repellency of contour feather. Tests in 29 species using breast contour feathers indicated that Dp was small in tericolous species, medium in wading and diving species, large in swimming species, with only a few exceptions. This implied that birds achieve appropriate Dp by optimizing the microstructure of feather to meet the requirement of water repellency. Therefore, Dp was a morphological marker linking structure and function of feather in studies of adaptive evolution of birds.
文摘Background:Parrots(Psittacidae Family)are one of the most colorful groups of birds in the world,their colors pro-duced both structurally and via unusual pigments(psittacofulvins).Most species are considered to be monogamous,and many have been viewed historically as sexually monomorphic and monochromatic.However,studies using morphometric analysis and spectrophotometric techniques have revealed sexual size dimorphism and also sexual plumage color dimorphism among some species.The Monk Parakeet(Myiopsitta monachus),a native parrot of South America,is an interesting species for the study of plumage coloration and size since it is considered sexually mono-chromatic and monomorphic.Furthermore,recent studies show that the Monk Parakeet has extra-bond paternity behavior and even breeding trios,which suggests that sexual selection may play an important role in this species,and that it might have sexually dimorphic plumage(albeit imperceptible by humans)and be dimorphic in size.Methods:For the determination of plumage color we used spectrophotometry in the range of avian vision(300-700 nm)and performed a morphological analysis.Results:Our spectrophotometric results indicate that the Monk Parakeet shows subtle sexual plumage color dimor-phism in three(crown,nape and wing)out of twelve body regions.Similarly,our morphometric analysis showed that there are subtle sex differences in body size(bill and weight).Conclusions:Although the Monk Parakeet shows extra-bond paternity and breeding trio behaviors which could increase sexual dimorphism,these behaviors occur among highly related individuals;perhaps the high rate of inbreeding is responsible for the attenuation of sexual plumage color dimorphism and sex differences in body size observed.
