The history of cultural exchange in prehistoric Eurasia(CEPE) has been widely investigated. Based on archaeological evidence, this process is thought to date back to at least the early Bronze Age, although details abo...The history of cultural exchange in prehistoric Eurasia(CEPE) has been widely investigated. Based on archaeological evidence, this process is thought to date back to at least the early Bronze Age, although details about timings and routes remain unclear. It is likely that CEPE promoted the spread and exchange of crops that originated in different parts of Eurasia; since these remains can be definitely identified and directly dated, they provide ideal research materials to explore the history of CEPE. In this paper, we review the available archaeobotanical evidence and direct radiocarbon dates for crop remains, alongside carbon isotopic data from human bones unearthed from prehistoric sites in Eurasia, in order to investigate the history of the spread of millet crops, and wheat and barley, that were first domesticated in the eastern and western parts of Eurasia during prehistoric times.In combination with other archaeological evidences, we discuss the history of CEPE. Our results suggest that wheat and barley were domesticated in western Asia around 10500 a BP, spread into Europe and western Central Asia before 8000 a BP, and reaching eastern Central Asia and northwestern China between 4500 and 4000 a BP. Data show that both broomcorn and foxtail millet were domesticated in eastern Asia before 7700 a BP, spread into eastern Central Asia between 4500 and 4000 a BP, and into western Asia and Europe prior to 3500 a BP. Wheat, barley, and millet crops were first utilized together in eastern Kazakhstan within Central Asia around 4400 a BP, the region where earliest CEPE is likely to have taken place. These crops were mixedly used mainly in eastern central Asia and northwest China between 4500 and 3500 a BP, and then across the Eurasia before 2200 a BP. The results of this study suggest that transcontinental CEPE might have been initiated during the fifth millennium, before intensifying during the Bronze Age to lay the foundations for the creation of the ancient Silk Road during the Han Dynasty(between 202 BC and 220AD)展开更多
The Holocene Megathermal is divided into early, middle and late periods, each having different impacts on the Neolithic cultures due to their different climate changing trends This study is based on a comparative anal...The Holocene Megathermal is divided into early, middle and late periods, each having different impacts on the Neolithic cultures due to their different climate changing trends This study is based on a comparative analysis of the environmental evolution information recorded in the Qinghai Lake, the western edge of the Loess Plateau and Zoige and the spatial distribution of Neolithic sites of the Gansu-Qinghai region. Results show that the early and middle periods towards warm and humid promoted the development of Neolithic cultures with agriculture as the main sector in the Gansu-Qinghai region, furthermore a heyday of Yangshao Culture prosperity emerged. The Holocene entered the late period after the cold climate event at 5.9 ka BP in the Gansu-Qinghai region. Later the climate began to turn cold. However, at the 5.8-4.2 ka BP a relatively stable warm and humid climate created the conditions for the development of Majiayao Culture of the Neolithic Age in this region, thus the distribution of its cultural heritage sites expanded towards high altitudes and high latitudes. From 4.2 ka BP onwards, the climate became cold and dry, which had a significant influence on the Neolithic cultures of the Gansu-Qinghai region, leading to a dramatic change in the cultural characters and spatial distribution of Qijia Culture around 4.2 ka BP. After a nearly 300 years of cold and dry period, the unified Neolithic farming culture completely collapsed. Afterwards an industrial division of animal husbandry and farming and regional multiple cultures formed, and ultimately led to the end of primitive society and the starting of a civilized society.展开更多
Based on the temporal-spatial distribution features of ancient settlement sites from the middle and late Neolithic Age to the Han dynasty in the Chaohu Lake Basin of Anhui Province, East China, using the methods of GI...Based on the temporal-spatial distribution features of ancient settlement sites from the middle and late Neolithic Age to the Han dynasty in the Chaohu Lake Basin of Anhui Province, East China, using the methods of GIS combined with the reconstructed paleoen- vironment by the records of lake sediment since Holocene, the transmutation of ancient set- tlements with response to environmental changes in this area has been discussed. Studies show that the main feature of transmutation of ancient settlements from the middle and late Neolithic Age to the Han Dynasty was that the distribution of settlements in this area changed from high altitudes to low ones and kept approaching the Chaohu Lake with the passage of time. These could be the response to the climate change from warm-moist to a relatively warm-dry condition during the middle Holocene, leading to the lake level fluctuations. The large area of exposed land provided enough space for human activities. These indicate that the above changes in geomorphologic evolution and hydrology influenced by climate condi- tions affected the transmutation of ancient settlements greatly. The distribution pattern of settlement sites was that the number of sites in the west was more than in the east. This pattern may be related to the geomorphologic conditions such as frequent channel shifting of the Yangtze River as well as flood disasters during the Holocene optimum. Therefore, climate change was the inducement of the transmutation of ancient settlements in the Chaohu Lake Basin, which exerted great influence on the distribution, expansion and development of the ancient settlements.展开更多
The East China coastal plain is one of the most important Neolithic culture areas in China, where rich archaeological sites including those producing the earliest domesticated rice are observed. It is also a place whe...The East China coastal plain is one of the most important Neolithic culture areas in China, where rich archaeological sites including those producing the earliest domesticated rice are observed. It is also a place where landscape has experienced dramatic evolution during the Holocene when both sea level and climate changed, such that it is an ideal place for studying human-environment interaction. This study investigated over 2000 sites of pre-history and Shang and Zhou Dynasties, with 655 of which being Neolithic ages, by using DEM and GIS methods. The results suggest that the spatial and temporal distribution of Neolithic sites has largely been controlled by landscape evolution(particularly changes in coastal line), which ultimately governed by sea level changes. During early Holocene, Neolithic sites sparsely distributed in the intermountain basins of east Zhejiang Province, far from the influence of ocean. Over the period of 9–7 ka, the coastal plain(including the shelf) was largely submerged,only the feet of low hills to the south and southwest of the study area, and islands protruding the estuary, cradled limited number of settlements with characteristic "maritime components". At about 7 ka, sea level rise decelerated prominently, while sediments supply in the drainage remained high value, the combination of which led to land formation and propagation. Vast space during this period facilitated the growth of settlements in both size and number. In the mean time, however, the coastal plain was vulnerable to extreme environmental events such as storms and flooding owning to its geomorphic nature, which exerted great influence on the rise and fall of Neolithic culture.展开更多
Mixed farming of rice and millet is one of the basic agricultural modes in the upper and middle Huai River Valley(HRV). According to the latest data, this agricultural mode appeared during the middle and late Peiligan...Mixed farming of rice and millet is one of the basic agricultural modes in the upper and middle Huai River Valley(HRV). According to the latest data, this agricultural mode appeared during the middle and late Peiligang Culture(7.8–7.0 ka BP) in the upper HRV, and then became a common subsistence economy in the end of the Neolithic(5.0–4.0 ka BP) in both the upper and middle HRV. However, it is still not clear how this mixed farming developed in the upper HRV after its occurrence, nor are the regional differences in the development of mixed farming between the upper and middle HRV during the Neolithic completely understood. In this paper, flotation and starch analyses were conducted on samples from eight archaeological sites in the upper and middle HRV. The results indicate that the mixed farming of rice and millet first appeared in the later phase of the middle Neolithic in the regions of the Peiligang Culture, then developed quite rapidly in the late Neolithic(6.8–5.0 ka BP), finally becoming the main subsistence economy at the end of the Neolithic in the upper HRV. However, there are obvious differences in the emergence and development of agriculture between the middle and upper HRV. Rice farming was the only agricultural system during the middle Neolithic, lasting until the end of the Neolithic, when mixed farming appeared in the middle HRV. Furthermore, although mixed farming appeared in both the upper and middle HRV during the end of the Neolithic, the roles of rice, foxtail millet and broomcorn millet in the subsistence economy were not the same. In general, millet was more widely cultivated than rice in the upper HRV, but rice occupied the same or a slightly more prominent position in the middle HRV at the end of the Neolithic. These results are significant for understanding the process of agricultural development and transformation, as well as human adaptation to climatic and cultural variability duringthe Neolithic.展开更多
It has been documented that human activities are causing the rapid loss of taxonomic, phylogenetic, genetic and functional diversity in soils. However, it remains unclear how modern intensive rice cultivation impacts ...It has been documented that human activities are causing the rapid loss of taxonomic, phylogenetic, genetic and functional diversity in soils. However, it remains unclear how modern intensive rice cultivation impacts the soil microbiome and its functionality. Here we examined the microbial composition and function differences between a buried Neolithic paddy soil and an adjacent, currently-cultivated paddy soil using high throughput metagenomics technologies. Our results showed that the currently cultivated soil contained about 10-fold more microbial biomass than the buried one. Analyses based on both 16S rRNA genes and functional gene array showed that the currently cultivated soil had significantly higher phylogenetic diversity, but less functional diversity than the buried Neolithic one. The community structures were significantly different between modern and ancient soils, with functional structure shifting towards accelerated organic carbon （C） degradation and nitrogen （N） transfor- mation in the modem soils. This study implies that, modern intensive rice cultivation has substantially altered soil microbial functional structure, leading to functional homogenization and the promotion of soil ecological functions related to the acceleration of nutrient cycling which is necessary for high crop yields.展开更多
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41620104007 & 41671077)the National Social Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 12&ZD151)the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. LZUJBKY-2015-k09)
文摘The history of cultural exchange in prehistoric Eurasia(CEPE) has been widely investigated. Based on archaeological evidence, this process is thought to date back to at least the early Bronze Age, although details about timings and routes remain unclear. It is likely that CEPE promoted the spread and exchange of crops that originated in different parts of Eurasia; since these remains can be definitely identified and directly dated, they provide ideal research materials to explore the history of CEPE. In this paper, we review the available archaeobotanical evidence and direct radiocarbon dates for crop remains, alongside carbon isotopic data from human bones unearthed from prehistoric sites in Eurasia, in order to investigate the history of the spread of millet crops, and wheat and barley, that were first domesticated in the eastern and western parts of Eurasia during prehistoric times.In combination with other archaeological evidences, we discuss the history of CEPE. Our results suggest that wheat and barley were domesticated in western Asia around 10500 a BP, spread into Europe and western Central Asia before 8000 a BP, and reaching eastern Central Asia and northwestern China between 4500 and 4000 a BP. Data show that both broomcorn and foxtail millet were domesticated in eastern Asia before 7700 a BP, spread into eastern Central Asia between 4500 and 4000 a BP, and into western Asia and Europe prior to 3500 a BP. Wheat, barley, and millet crops were first utilized together in eastern Kazakhstan within Central Asia around 4400 a BP, the region where earliest CEPE is likely to have taken place. These crops were mixedly used mainly in eastern central Asia and northwest China between 4500 and 3500 a BP, and then across the Eurasia before 2200 a BP. The results of this study suggest that transcontinental CEPE might have been initiated during the fifth millennium, before intensifying during the Bronze Age to lay the foundations for the creation of the ancient Silk Road during the Han Dynasty(between 202 BC and 220AD)
基金National Natural Science Foundation of China, No.40771211 No.40261003 National Key Technology Research and Development Program, No.2007BAC03A11 The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to Prof. Fang Xiuqi from Beijing Normal University for his constructive suggestions that greatly improved this manuscript, as well as Dr. Ran Min from Lanzhou University for providing some information, and Yang Yuhan, a master from Qinghai Normal University, for collecting the materials, in the prepa- ration of this paper.
文摘The Holocene Megathermal is divided into early, middle and late periods, each having different impacts on the Neolithic cultures due to their different climate changing trends This study is based on a comparative analysis of the environmental evolution information recorded in the Qinghai Lake, the western edge of the Loess Plateau and Zoige and the spatial distribution of Neolithic sites of the Gansu-Qinghai region. Results show that the early and middle periods towards warm and humid promoted the development of Neolithic cultures with agriculture as the main sector in the Gansu-Qinghai region, furthermore a heyday of Yangshao Culture prosperity emerged. The Holocene entered the late period after the cold climate event at 5.9 ka BP in the Gansu-Qinghai region. Later the climate began to turn cold. However, at the 5.8-4.2 ka BP a relatively stable warm and humid climate created the conditions for the development of Majiayao Culture of the Neolithic Age in this region, thus the distribution of its cultural heritage sites expanded towards high altitudes and high latitudes. From 4.2 ka BP onwards, the climate became cold and dry, which had a significant influence on the Neolithic cultures of the Gansu-Qinghai region, leading to a dramatic change in the cultural characters and spatial distribution of Qijia Culture around 4.2 ka BP. After a nearly 300 years of cold and dry period, the unified Neolithic farming culture completely collapsed. Afterwards an industrial division of animal husbandry and farming and regional multiple cultures formed, and ultimately led to the end of primitive society and the starting of a civilized society.
基金Major Program of Natural Science Research at University of Anhui Province, No.ZD200908 National Sci ence and Technology Support Program, No.2010BAK67B02+1 种基金 National Natural Science Foundation of China, No.41010104005 No.40971115This work is supported by the Tracing Origin Project of Chinese Civilization. We thank Dr. An Ran and Dr. Heim. Jordan in Purdue University, USA, for their kind help and valuable discussions.
文摘Based on the temporal-spatial distribution features of ancient settlement sites from the middle and late Neolithic Age to the Han dynasty in the Chaohu Lake Basin of Anhui Province, East China, using the methods of GIS combined with the reconstructed paleoen- vironment by the records of lake sediment since Holocene, the transmutation of ancient set- tlements with response to environmental changes in this area has been discussed. Studies show that the main feature of transmutation of ancient settlements from the middle and late Neolithic Age to the Han Dynasty was that the distribution of settlements in this area changed from high altitudes to low ones and kept approaching the Chaohu Lake with the passage of time. These could be the response to the climate change from warm-moist to a relatively warm-dry condition during the middle Holocene, leading to the lake level fluctuations. The large area of exposed land provided enough space for human activities. These indicate that the above changes in geomorphologic evolution and hydrology influenced by climate condi- tions affected the transmutation of ancient settlements greatly. The distribution pattern of settlement sites was that the number of sites in the west was more than in the east. This pattern may be related to the geomorphologic conditions such as frequent channel shifting of the Yangtze River as well as flood disasters during the Holocene optimum. Therefore, climate change was the inducement of the transmutation of ancient settlements in the Chaohu Lake Basin, which exerted great influence on the distribution, expansion and development of the ancient settlements.
基金supported by the National Basic Research Program of China (Grant No. 2015CB953803)the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41672344)the CAS Strategic Priority Research Program (Grant No. XDB03020301)
文摘The East China coastal plain is one of the most important Neolithic culture areas in China, where rich archaeological sites including those producing the earliest domesticated rice are observed. It is also a place where landscape has experienced dramatic evolution during the Holocene when both sea level and climate changed, such that it is an ideal place for studying human-environment interaction. This study investigated over 2000 sites of pre-history and Shang and Zhou Dynasties, with 655 of which being Neolithic ages, by using DEM and GIS methods. The results suggest that the spatial and temporal distribution of Neolithic sites has largely been controlled by landscape evolution(particularly changes in coastal line), which ultimately governed by sea level changes. During early Holocene, Neolithic sites sparsely distributed in the intermountain basins of east Zhejiang Province, far from the influence of ocean. Over the period of 9–7 ka, the coastal plain(including the shelf) was largely submerged,only the feet of low hills to the south and southwest of the study area, and islands protruding the estuary, cradled limited number of settlements with characteristic "maritime components". At about 7 ka, sea level rise decelerated prominently, while sediments supply in the drainage remained high value, the combination of which led to land formation and propagation. Vast space during this period facilitated the growth of settlements in both size and number. In the mean time, however, the coastal plain was vulnerable to extreme environmental events such as storms and flooding owning to its geomorphic nature, which exerted great influence on the rise and fall of Neolithic culture.
基金supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDA05130503)National Basic Research Program of China (Grant No. 2015CB953802)+1 种基金the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41472148 & 41502164)the Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project of the Ministry of Education (Grant No. 15YJA780003)
文摘Mixed farming of rice and millet is one of the basic agricultural modes in the upper and middle Huai River Valley(HRV). According to the latest data, this agricultural mode appeared during the middle and late Peiligang Culture(7.8–7.0 ka BP) in the upper HRV, and then became a common subsistence economy in the end of the Neolithic(5.0–4.0 ka BP) in both the upper and middle HRV. However, it is still not clear how this mixed farming developed in the upper HRV after its occurrence, nor are the regional differences in the development of mixed farming between the upper and middle HRV during the Neolithic completely understood. In this paper, flotation and starch analyses were conducted on samples from eight archaeological sites in the upper and middle HRV. The results indicate that the mixed farming of rice and millet first appeared in the later phase of the middle Neolithic in the regions of the Peiligang Culture, then developed quite rapidly in the late Neolithic(6.8–5.0 ka BP), finally becoming the main subsistence economy at the end of the Neolithic in the upper HRV. However, there are obvious differences in the emergence and development of agriculture between the middle and upper HRV. Rice farming was the only agricultural system during the middle Neolithic, lasting until the end of the Neolithic, when mixed farming appeared in the middle HRV. Furthermore, although mixed farming appeared in both the upper and middle HRV during the end of the Neolithic, the roles of rice, foxtail millet and broomcorn millet in the subsistence economy were not the same. In general, millet was more widely cultivated than rice in the upper HRV, but rice occupied the same or a slightly more prominent position in the middle HRV at the end of the Neolithic. These results are significant for understanding the process of agricultural development and transformation, as well as human adaptation to climatic and cultural variability duringthe Neolithic.
基金supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDB15020302, XDB15020402)National Natural Science Foundation of China (41090282)
文摘It has been documented that human activities are causing the rapid loss of taxonomic, phylogenetic, genetic and functional diversity in soils. However, it remains unclear how modern intensive rice cultivation impacts the soil microbiome and its functionality. Here we examined the microbial composition and function differences between a buried Neolithic paddy soil and an adjacent, currently-cultivated paddy soil using high throughput metagenomics technologies. Our results showed that the currently cultivated soil contained about 10-fold more microbial biomass than the buried one. Analyses based on both 16S rRNA genes and functional gene array showed that the currently cultivated soil had significantly higher phylogenetic diversity, but less functional diversity than the buried Neolithic one. The community structures were significantly different between modern and ancient soils, with functional structure shifting towards accelerated organic carbon （C） degradation and nitrogen （N） transfor- mation in the modem soils. This study implies that, modern intensive rice cultivation has substantially altered soil microbial functional structure, leading to functional homogenization and the promotion of soil ecological functions related to the acceleration of nutrient cycling which is necessary for high crop yields.
