The paper posits that kin sociality and eusociality are derived from the handicap-care principles based on the need-based care to the handicappers from the caregivers for the self-interest of the caregivers. In this p...The paper posits that kin sociality and eusociality are derived from the handicap-care principles based on the need-based care to the handicappers from the caregivers for the self-interest of the caregivers. In this paper, handicap is defined as the difficulty to survive and reproduce independently. Kin sociality is derived from the childhood handicap-care principle where the children are the handicapped children who receive the care from the kin caregivers in the inclusive kin group to survive. The caregiver gives care for its self-interest to reproduce its gene. The individual’s gene of kin sociality contains the handicapped childhood and the caregiving adulthood. Eusociality is derived from the adulthood handicap-care principle where responsible adults are the handicapped adults who give care and receive care at the same time in the interdependent eusocial group to survive and reproduce its gene. Queen bees reproduce, but must receive care from worker bees that work but must rely on queen bees to reproduce. A caregiver gives care for its self-interest to survive and reproduce its gene. The individual’s gene of eusociality contains the handicapped childhood-adulthood and the caregiving adulthood. The chronological sequence of the sociality evolution is individual sociality without handicap, kin sociality with handicapped childhood, and eusociality with handicapped adulthood. Eusociality in humans is derived from bipedalism and the mixed habitat. The chronological sequence of the eusocial human evolution is 1) the eusocial early hominins with bipedalism and the mixed habitat, 2) the eusocial early Homo species with bipedalism, the larger brain, and the open habitat, 3) the eusocial late Homo species with bipedalism, the largest brain, and the unstable habitat, and 4) extended eusocial Homo sapiens with bipedalism, the shrinking brain, omnipresent imagination, and the harsh habitat. The omnipresence of imagination in human culture converts eusociality into extended eusociality with both perception and omnipre展开更多
Kin recognition has been widely observed in various taxa.Cannibalism avoidance may be a strong driver for the evolution of kin recognition,as it may avoid a reduction in inclusive fitness.Kin recognition has recently ...Kin recognition has been widely observed in various taxa.Cannibalism avoidance may be a strong driver for the evolution of kin recognition,as it may avoid a reduction in inclusive fitness.Kin recognition has recently been observed in a generalist phytoseiid,Amblyseius herbicolus(Acari:Phytoseiidae).This study experimentally examined the degree of relatedness needed between prey larvae and cannibal adults of A.herbicolus for the occurrence of kin discrimination.The adults were individually placed in enclosed arenas with two prey,a daughter and a more distant related larva,to observe their cannibalizing choice.The adults of A.herbicolus did not discriminate between close relatives(daughter versus niece)but preferably cannibalized more distant kin(i.e.,first and second cousins once removed).Phenotype matching and familiarization seem prominent as recognition mechanisms used by A.herbicolus adults.The effect of learning on kin recognition through prior contact in A.herbicolus requires further investigation.Studies on other adaptive functions of kin recognition of A.herbicolus,such as cooperation and parental care,may provide meaningful insights.展开更多
Among mammals,mothers provide maternal care and protection starting from gestation and they ensure nutritional supply via lactation after birth(Clutton-Brock 1991).However,in social mammals,infants may also be cared f...Among mammals,mothers provide maternal care and protection starting from gestation and they ensure nutritional supply via lactation after birth(Clutton-Brock 1991).However,in social mammals,infants may also be cared for by a variety of other group members,such as fathers,siblings,a host of more distant relatives,and even unrelated individuals.Care by individuals other than the mother is known as allomaternal care(nonmaternal care)(Ishizuka 2020).Moreover,adoption of an orphaned infant is a special case of allomaternal care(Chaves et al.2020).展开更多
Altruism is difficult to explain evolutionarily and to understand it,there is a need to quantify the benefits and costs to altruists.Hamilton’s theory of kin selection argues that altruism can persist if the costs to...Altruism is difficult to explain evolutionarily and to understand it,there is a need to quantify the benefits and costs to altruists.Hamilton’s theory of kin selection argues that altruism can persist if the costs to altruists are offset by indirect fitness payoffs from helping related recipients.Nevertheless,helping nonkin is also common and in such situations,the costs must be compensated for by direct benefits.While previous researchers tended to evaluate the indirect and direct fitness in isolation,we expect that they have a complementary interaction where altruists are associated with recipients of different relatedness within a population.The prediction is tested with 12years of data on lifetime reproductive success for a cooperatively breeding bird,Tibetan ground tits Pseudopodoces humilis.Helpers who helped distantly related recipients gained significantly lower indirect benefits than those who helped closely related recipients,but the opposite was true for direct fitness,thereby making these helpers have an equal inclusive fitness.Helping efforts were independent of helpers’relatedness to recipients,but those helping distantly related recipients were more likely to inherit the resident territory,which could be responsible for their high direct reproductive success.Our findings provide an explanatory model for the widespread coexistence of altruists and recipients with varying relatedness within a single population.展开更多
Previous observations of cannibalism have been made in the aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (L.): this article seeks to quantify factors contributing to such be- haviors. We observed and quantified the responses of a numb...Previous observations of cannibalism have been made in the aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (L.): this article seeks to quantify factors contributing to such be- haviors. We observed and quantified the responses of a number of clones and life stages to varying levels of starvation, in the form of increasingly desiccated Vicafaba L. plants (receiving 50, 25, or 10 mL every second day) or a complete absence of host plant. We found that, while the longest incidences of cannibalism are carried out by juveniles (F = 3.45, P = 0.019, df = 3) and targeted at adults, the starvation treatments had the most significant effect on the prevalence of cannibalism in mature A. pisum (F ---- 2.24, P = 0.025, df = 9). Furthermore, there was no difference between the prevalence or dura- tion of cannibalistic activities within and between different clones (P 〉 0.05 in all cases), though juveniles were more likely to target unrelated aphids (V = 6 112, P = 0.011), and spent more time feeding on aphids from the same culture (V = 6 062, P = 0.018).展开更多
Two acetylcholinesterase (ace) genes have been reported in many insect species. In pests such as Helicoverpa assulta and Plutella xylostellas, acel gene encodes the predominant synaptic enzyme that is the main targe...Two acetylcholinesterase (ace) genes have been reported in many insect species. In pests such as Helicoverpa assulta and Plutella xylostellas, acel gene encodes the predominant synaptic enzyme that is the main target of organophosphorus (OP) and carbamate pesticides. It has been reported that pesticide selection has an impact on the ace gene evolution. The domesticated silkworm, Bombyx mori, also has two ace genes. We studied ace gene expression and enzyme activities in silkworm as this has not faced pesticide selection over the past decades. The expression levels of two ace genes, Bm-acel and Bm-ace2, were estimated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Bin-ace2 was expressed more highly than Bm-acel in all tested samples of different developmental stages or tissues, suggesting ace2, rather than acel, is the major type ofacetylcholinesterase (ACHE) in Bombyx mori. This is inconsistent with the aforementioned lepidopterons agricultural pests, partly be due to the widespread use of pesticides that may induce high expression of the acel gene in these pests. Besides high expression in the head, Bm-acel also expresses highly in the silk glands and Bm-ace2 is abundant in the germline, implying both ace genes may have potential non-hydrolytic roles in development. Furthermore, we found that the mRNA levels of two ace genes and their ratios (ace2/acel) change day to day in the first and third instars. This challenges the conventional method of estimating enzymatic activity using crude extract as an enzyme solution, as it is a mixture of ACHE 1 and ACHE2. An efficient and simple method for separating different ACHEs is necessary for reliable toxicological analyses.展开更多
In high seismicity areas, it is important to consider kinematic effects to properly design pile foundations.Kinematic effects are due to the interaction between pile and soil deformations induced by seismic waves. One...In high seismicity areas, it is important to consider kinematic effects to properly design pile foundations.Kinematic effects are due to the interaction between pile and soil deformations induced by seismic waves. One of the effect is the arise of significant strains in weak soils that induce bending moments on piles. These moments can be significant in presence of a high stiffness contrast in a soil deposit. The single pile kinematic interaction problem is generally solved with beam on dynamic Winkler foundation approaches(BDWF) or using continuous models. In this work, a new boundary element method(BEM)based computer code(KIN SP) is presented where the kinematic analysis is preceded by a free-field response analysis. The analysis results of this method, in terms of bending moments at the pile-head and at the interface of a two-layered soil, are influenced by many factors including the soil-pile interface discretization. A parametric study is presented with the aim to suggest the minimum number of boundary elements to guarantee the accuracy of a BEM solution, for typical pile-soil relative stiffness values as a function of the pile diameter, the location of the interface of a two-layered soil and of the stiffness contrast. KIN SP results have been compared with simplified solutions in literature and with those obtained using a quasi-three-dimensional(3D) finite element code.展开更多
An (a, d)-edge-antimagic total labeling of a graph G is a bijection f from V(G) ∪ E(G) onto {1, 2,..., |V(G)| + |E(G)|} with the property that the edge-weight set {f(x) + f(xy) + f(y) | xy ∈ ...An (a, d)-edge-antimagic total labeling of a graph G is a bijection f from V(G) ∪ E(G) onto {1, 2,..., |V(G)| + |E(G)|} with the property that the edge-weight set {f(x) + f(xy) + f(y) | xy ∈ E(G)} is equal to {a, a + d, a + 2d,... ,a + (|E(G)| - 1)d} for two integers a 〉 0 and d ≥ 0. An (a,d)-edge- antimagic total labeling is called super if the smMlest possible labels appear on the vertices. In this paper, we completely settle the problem of the super (a, d)-edge-antimagic total labeling of the complete bipartite graph [(m,n and obtain the following results: the graph t(m,n has a super (a, d)-edge-antimagic total labeling if and only if either (i) m = 1, n = 1, and d ≥ 0, or (ii) m = 1, n≥2 (orn=1 and m≥2),and d ∈{0,1,2},or (iii) m=l,n=2 (orn=1 and m = 2), and d= 3, or (iv) m,n≥2, and d=1展开更多
Indications of dementia disease include deterioration of memory, thinking, behaviour, and the ability to perform everyday activities. Any of these symptoms can lead to stress and difficulties organizing everyday life....Indications of dementia disease include deterioration of memory, thinking, behaviour, and the ability to perform everyday activities. Any of these symptoms can lead to stress and difficulties organizing everyday life. As a way to view factors that support human health and well-being despite stressful situations, Antonovsky introduced a salutogenic model. This model proposes that sense of coherence primarily determines physical and mental health i.e. psychological well-being. Having a sense of coherence in everyday life can reduce the impact of stress on the individual in everyday life. The study’s aim of this study was to explore how participants in existing support groups scored on the Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC), and what they perceived as contributory factors to a meaningful, manageable, and comprehensible everyday life in the presence of dementia using a mixed method. Persons with dementia had the highest scores on the SOC scale and their partners the lowest. Persons with dementia expressed that being with others who understood them made their everyday life comprehensible and manageable. Their partners expressed that learning about dementia was helpful in managing and comprehending everyday situations. The adult children expressed that it was meaningful to care for their parents and they scored slightly higher than the partners on the SOC scale. Long-term ongoing support supplemented with information and social support can contribute to the sense of coherence in persons with dementia and their next of kin.展开更多
Chaotic genetic patchiness (CGP) refers to surprising patterns of spatial and temporal genetic structure observed in some marine species at a scale where genetic variation should be efficiently homogenized by gene f...Chaotic genetic patchiness (CGP) refers to surprising patterns of spatial and temporal genetic structure observed in some marine species at a scale where genetic variation should be efficiently homogenized by gene flow via larval dispersal. Here we review and discuss 4 mechanisms that could generate such unexpected patterns: selection, sweepstakes reproductive success, collective dispersal, and temporal shifts in local population dynamics. First, we review examples where genetic differentiation at specific loci was driven by diversifying selection, which was historically the first process invoked to explain CGP. Second, we turn to neutral demographic processes that may drive genome-wide effects, and whose effects on CGP may be enhanced when they act together. We discuss how sweepstakes reproductive success accelerates genetic drift and can thus generate genetic structure, provided that gene flow is not too strong. Collective dispersal is another mechanism whereby genetic structure can be maintained regardless of dispersal intensity, because it may prevent larval cohorts from becoming entirely mixed. Theoretical analyses of both the sweepstakes and the collective dispersal ideas are presented. Finally, we discuss an idea that has received less attention than the other ones just mentioned, namely temporal shifts in local population dynamics.展开更多
文摘The paper posits that kin sociality and eusociality are derived from the handicap-care principles based on the need-based care to the handicappers from the caregivers for the self-interest of the caregivers. In this paper, handicap is defined as the difficulty to survive and reproduce independently. Kin sociality is derived from the childhood handicap-care principle where the children are the handicapped children who receive the care from the kin caregivers in the inclusive kin group to survive. The caregiver gives care for its self-interest to reproduce its gene. The individual’s gene of kin sociality contains the handicapped childhood and the caregiving adulthood. Eusociality is derived from the adulthood handicap-care principle where responsible adults are the handicapped adults who give care and receive care at the same time in the interdependent eusocial group to survive and reproduce its gene. Queen bees reproduce, but must receive care from worker bees that work but must rely on queen bees to reproduce. A caregiver gives care for its self-interest to survive and reproduce its gene. The individual’s gene of eusociality contains the handicapped childhood-adulthood and the caregiving adulthood. The chronological sequence of the sociality evolution is individual sociality without handicap, kin sociality with handicapped childhood, and eusociality with handicapped adulthood. Eusociality in humans is derived from bipedalism and the mixed habitat. The chronological sequence of the eusocial human evolution is 1) the eusocial early hominins with bipedalism and the mixed habitat, 2) the eusocial early Homo species with bipedalism, the larger brain, and the open habitat, 3) the eusocial late Homo species with bipedalism, the largest brain, and the unstable habitat, and 4) extended eusocial Homo sapiens with bipedalism, the shrinking brain, omnipresent imagination, and the harsh habitat. The omnipresence of imagination in human culture converts eusociality into extended eusociality with both perception and omnipre
基金This study was supported in part by New Zealand Government core funding for Crown Research Institutes from the Ministry of Business,Innovation and Employment’s Science and Innovation Group.
文摘Kin recognition has been widely observed in various taxa.Cannibalism avoidance may be a strong driver for the evolution of kin recognition,as it may avoid a reduction in inclusive fitness.Kin recognition has recently been observed in a generalist phytoseiid,Amblyseius herbicolus(Acari:Phytoseiidae).This study experimentally examined the degree of relatedness needed between prey larvae and cannibal adults of A.herbicolus for the occurrence of kin discrimination.The adults were individually placed in enclosed arenas with two prey,a daughter and a more distant related larva,to observe their cannibalizing choice.The adults of A.herbicolus did not discriminate between close relatives(daughter versus niece)but preferably cannibalized more distant kin(i.e.,first and second cousins once removed).Phenotype matching and familiarization seem prominent as recognition mechanisms used by A.herbicolus adults.The effect of learning on kin recognition through prior contact in A.herbicolus requires further investigation.Studies on other adaptive functions of kin recognition of A.herbicolus,such as cooperation and parental care,may provide meaningful insights.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.31472018,31672302).
文摘Among mammals,mothers provide maternal care and protection starting from gestation and they ensure nutritional supply via lactation after birth(Clutton-Brock 1991).However,in social mammals,infants may also be cared for by a variety of other group members,such as fathers,siblings,a host of more distant relatives,and even unrelated individuals.Care by individuals other than the mother is known as allomaternal care(nonmaternal care)(Ishizuka 2020).Moreover,adoption of an orphaned infant is a special case of allomaternal care(Chaves et al.2020).
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(31830085)the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research program(2019QZKK0501).
文摘Altruism is difficult to explain evolutionarily and to understand it,there is a need to quantify the benefits and costs to altruists.Hamilton’s theory of kin selection argues that altruism can persist if the costs to altruists are offset by indirect fitness payoffs from helping related recipients.Nevertheless,helping nonkin is also common and in such situations,the costs must be compensated for by direct benefits.While previous researchers tended to evaluate the indirect and direct fitness in isolation,we expect that they have a complementary interaction where altruists are associated with recipients of different relatedness within a population.The prediction is tested with 12years of data on lifetime reproductive success for a cooperatively breeding bird,Tibetan ground tits Pseudopodoces humilis.Helpers who helped distantly related recipients gained significantly lower indirect benefits than those who helped closely related recipients,but the opposite was true for direct fitness,thereby making these helpers have an equal inclusive fitness.Helping efforts were independent of helpers’relatedness to recipients,but those helping distantly related recipients were more likely to inherit the resident territory,which could be responsible for their high direct reproductive success.Our findings provide an explanatory model for the widespread coexistence of altruists and recipients with varying relatedness within a single population.
文摘Previous observations of cannibalism have been made in the aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (L.): this article seeks to quantify factors contributing to such be- haviors. We observed and quantified the responses of a number of clones and life stages to varying levels of starvation, in the form of increasingly desiccated Vicafaba L. plants (receiving 50, 25, or 10 mL every second day) or a complete absence of host plant. We found that, while the longest incidences of cannibalism are carried out by juveniles (F = 3.45, P = 0.019, df = 3) and targeted at adults, the starvation treatments had the most significant effect on the prevalence of cannibalism in mature A. pisum (F ---- 2.24, P = 0.025, df = 9). Furthermore, there was no difference between the prevalence or dura- tion of cannibalistic activities within and between different clones (P 〉 0.05 in all cases), though juveniles were more likely to target unrelated aphids (V = 6 112, P = 0.011), and spent more time feeding on aphids from the same culture (V = 6 062, P = 0.018).
文摘Two acetylcholinesterase (ace) genes have been reported in many insect species. In pests such as Helicoverpa assulta and Plutella xylostellas, acel gene encodes the predominant synaptic enzyme that is the main target of organophosphorus (OP) and carbamate pesticides. It has been reported that pesticide selection has an impact on the ace gene evolution. The domesticated silkworm, Bombyx mori, also has two ace genes. We studied ace gene expression and enzyme activities in silkworm as this has not faced pesticide selection over the past decades. The expression levels of two ace genes, Bm-acel and Bm-ace2, were estimated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Bin-ace2 was expressed more highly than Bm-acel in all tested samples of different developmental stages or tissues, suggesting ace2, rather than acel, is the major type ofacetylcholinesterase (ACHE) in Bombyx mori. This is inconsistent with the aforementioned lepidopterons agricultural pests, partly be due to the widespread use of pesticides that may induce high expression of the acel gene in these pests. Besides high expression in the head, Bm-acel also expresses highly in the silk glands and Bm-ace2 is abundant in the germline, implying both ace genes may have potential non-hydrolytic roles in development. Furthermore, we found that the mRNA levels of two ace genes and their ratios (ace2/acel) change day to day in the first and third instars. This challenges the conventional method of estimating enzymatic activity using crude extract as an enzyme solution, as it is a mixture of ACHE 1 and ACHE2. An efficient and simple method for separating different ACHEs is necessary for reliable toxicological analyses.
文摘In high seismicity areas, it is important to consider kinematic effects to properly design pile foundations.Kinematic effects are due to the interaction between pile and soil deformations induced by seismic waves. One of the effect is the arise of significant strains in weak soils that induce bending moments on piles. These moments can be significant in presence of a high stiffness contrast in a soil deposit. The single pile kinematic interaction problem is generally solved with beam on dynamic Winkler foundation approaches(BDWF) or using continuous models. In this work, a new boundary element method(BEM)based computer code(KIN SP) is presented where the kinematic analysis is preceded by a free-field response analysis. The analysis results of this method, in terms of bending moments at the pile-head and at the interface of a two-layered soil, are influenced by many factors including the soil-pile interface discretization. A parametric study is presented with the aim to suggest the minimum number of boundary elements to guarantee the accuracy of a BEM solution, for typical pile-soil relative stiffness values as a function of the pile diameter, the location of the interface of a two-layered soil and of the stiffness contrast. KIN SP results have been compared with simplified solutions in literature and with those obtained using a quasi-three-dimensional(3D) finite element code.
文摘An (a, d)-edge-antimagic total labeling of a graph G is a bijection f from V(G) ∪ E(G) onto {1, 2,..., |V(G)| + |E(G)|} with the property that the edge-weight set {f(x) + f(xy) + f(y) | xy ∈ E(G)} is equal to {a, a + d, a + 2d,... ,a + (|E(G)| - 1)d} for two integers a 〉 0 and d ≥ 0. An (a,d)-edge- antimagic total labeling is called super if the smMlest possible labels appear on the vertices. In this paper, we completely settle the problem of the super (a, d)-edge-antimagic total labeling of the complete bipartite graph [(m,n and obtain the following results: the graph t(m,n has a super (a, d)-edge-antimagic total labeling if and only if either (i) m = 1, n = 1, and d ≥ 0, or (ii) m = 1, n≥2 (orn=1 and m≥2),and d ∈{0,1,2},or (iii) m=l,n=2 (orn=1 and m = 2), and d= 3, or (iv) m,n≥2, and d=1
文摘Indications of dementia disease include deterioration of memory, thinking, behaviour, and the ability to perform everyday activities. Any of these symptoms can lead to stress and difficulties organizing everyday life. As a way to view factors that support human health and well-being despite stressful situations, Antonovsky introduced a salutogenic model. This model proposes that sense of coherence primarily determines physical and mental health i.e. psychological well-being. Having a sense of coherence in everyday life can reduce the impact of stress on the individual in everyday life. The study’s aim of this study was to explore how participants in existing support groups scored on the Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC), and what they perceived as contributory factors to a meaningful, manageable, and comprehensible everyday life in the presence of dementia using a mixed method. Persons with dementia had the highest scores on the SOC scale and their partners the lowest. Persons with dementia expressed that being with others who understood them made their everyday life comprehensible and manageable. Their partners expressed that learning about dementia was helpful in managing and comprehending everyday situations. The adult children expressed that it was meaningful to care for their parents and they scored slightly higher than the partners on the SOC scale. Long-term ongoing support supplemented with information and social support can contribute to the sense of coherence in persons with dementia and their next of kin.
文摘Chaotic genetic patchiness (CGP) refers to surprising patterns of spatial and temporal genetic structure observed in some marine species at a scale where genetic variation should be efficiently homogenized by gene flow via larval dispersal. Here we review and discuss 4 mechanisms that could generate such unexpected patterns: selection, sweepstakes reproductive success, collective dispersal, and temporal shifts in local population dynamics. First, we review examples where genetic differentiation at specific loci was driven by diversifying selection, which was historically the first process invoked to explain CGP. Second, we turn to neutral demographic processes that may drive genome-wide effects, and whose effects on CGP may be enhanced when they act together. We discuss how sweepstakes reproductive success accelerates genetic drift and can thus generate genetic structure, provided that gene flow is not too strong. Collective dispersal is another mechanism whereby genetic structure can be maintained regardless of dispersal intensity, because it may prevent larval cohorts from becoming entirely mixed. Theoretical analyses of both the sweepstakes and the collective dispersal ideas are presented. Finally, we discuss an idea that has received less attention than the other ones just mentioned, namely temporal shifts in local population dynamics.