Mass plays a role in many physical phenomena, including the behavior of subatomic particles, the formation and behavior of stars and galaxies, and gravitational interactions between objects. The density of vacuum, 9.5...Mass plays a role in many physical phenomena, including the behavior of subatomic particles, the formation and behavior of stars and galaxies, and gravitational interactions between objects. The density of vacuum, 9.5 × 10−27 kg/m3, is a crucial parameter in the theory of cosmic inflation and is responsible for the accelerated expansion of the universe in its early stages. This vacuum energy interacts with matter and manifests itself as mass, which can be described as flow and vortex formation using the laws of hydrodynamics. The vortex model of elementary particles, in conjunction with the laws of hydrodynamics, provides an elegant explanation for the origin of mass and the relationship between mass and energy, with profound implications for the behavior of objects at high velocities and strong gravitational fields. The vacuum behaves as a compressible superfluid, thus elementary particles can be described as vortices of the vacuum. The equations of hydrodynamics for vortices can be applied to describe the nature and value of the mass of particles. The implications of understanding the nature of mass are vast and profound. From elucidating the fundamental properties of particles to informing the design of advanced materials and technologies, this knowledge is indispensable. It drives advancements across numerous fields, transforming both our theoretical understanding and practical capabilities. Continued research into the nature of mass promises to unlock further insights, fostering innovation and expanding the frontiers of science and technology.展开更多
The purpose of this article is to propose a new design for the periodic table of elements. The new design is based on a three-dimensional (3D) model of the gastropod shell structure and presents a mechanism of the for...The purpose of this article is to propose a new design for the periodic table of elements. The new design is based on a three-dimensional (3D) model of the gastropod shell structure and presents a mechanism of the formation of elements that reflects the laws of nature that guide the formation of the gastropod shell, electron orbitals, and element structure. The author also identifies challenges associated with the current standard periodic table, such as the positions of hydrogen, helium, lanthanides, and actinides. The author’s research is a response to the IUPAC’s request, dating back to 2016, to settle unresolved disputes surrounding the current standard periodic table. Hence, the author proposes the “Gastropod Shell Model”, which presents the periodic system in 2D and 3D snail shells based on a hypothesized unifying principle guiding the formation of elements: the universal unified theory that considers the spiral and vortex forms as the bridge between energy and matter. The author was able to position hydrogen, helium, lanthanides, and actinides uniquely in their proposed periodic system to solve problems associated with their positions in the standard periodic table. Readers will be interested in uncovering the “hypothesized unifying principle guiding the formation of elements”.展开更多
The nature and the origin of the fine structure are described. Based on the vortex model and hydrodynamics, a comprehensible interpretation of the fine structure constant is developed. The vacuum considered to have su...The nature and the origin of the fine structure are described. Based on the vortex model and hydrodynamics, a comprehensible interpretation of the fine structure constant is developed. The vacuum considered to have superfluid characteristics and elementary particles such as the electron and Hydrogen molecule are irrotational vortices of this superfluid. In such a vortex, the angular rotation ω is maintained, and the larger the radius, the slower the rotational speed. The fine structure value is derived from the ratio of the rotational speed of the boundaries of the vortex to the speed of the vortex eye in its center. Since the angular rotation is constant, the same value was derived from the ratio between the radius of the constant vortex core and the radius of the hall vortex. Therefore, the constancy of alpha is an expression of the constancy relation in the vortex structure.展开更多
Charge is a fundamental physical property of matter that is responsible for its interactions with electromagnetic fields. The real nature and the essence of charge are unknown. In this paper, a new theory is presented...Charge is a fundamental physical property of matter that is responsible for its interactions with electromagnetic fields. The real nature and the essence of charge are unknown. In this paper, a new theory is presented to describe the nature and the essence of electric charge is formulated based on the vortex model of the electron which has a finite size and has an irrotational vortex structure. This theory and the vortex model of the electron enables us, for the first time, to describe the origin of bivalency, stability, quantization, equality of the absolute values of the bivalent charges, to derive a simple formulation to calculate the electric charge based on hydrodynamics without the use any constant. The difference between negative and positive charge, is revealed and the charged particles interactions are described. The electric charge is an expression of accelerated spherical mass per area reduced by the stiffness of the vacuum which has the units <i>ε</i><sub>0</sub> ML<sup>3</sup>/T<sup>2</sup>. The calculated results based on these equations comply accurately with the experimental results.展开更多
Along with all other quantum objects, an electron is partly a wave and partly a particle. The corpuscular properties of a particle are demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its traj...Along with all other quantum objects, an electron is partly a wave and partly a particle. The corpuscular properties of a particle are demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given moment. When an electron looks more like a particle it has no shape, “point particle”, according to the Standard Model, meaning that it interacts as if it is entirely located at a single point in space and does not spread out to fill a three-dimensional volume. Therefore, in the sense of particle-like interactions, an electron has no shape. In this paper, a new theory is proposed in which the electron has a structure and a shape. The central idea is that an electron is a frictionless vortex with conserved momentum made out of condensed vacuum generated in the Big Bang from massless virtual photons that acquire mass when moving in the vortex at the speed of light. Using Hydrodynamics laws and applying them on the superfluid vacuum the basic properties of the electron are described here forth. This study provides mathematical models to calculate the mass, kinetic energy, density, volume, time, charge, and particle-wave duality. Such mathematical formulations are presented to confirm the theory. We conclude that the shape of the electron is accessible to human imagination, knowing its shape helps to determine its properties and shed a light on how matter is made and to explain the interactions of sub-atomic particles.展开更多
The nature of gravitation and <em>G</em> is not well understood. A new gravitation mechanism is proposed that explains the origin and essence of the gravitational constant, <em>G</em>. Based on...The nature of gravitation and <em>G</em> is not well understood. A new gravitation mechanism is proposed that explains the origin and essence of the gravitational constant, <em>G</em>. Based on general relativity, the vacuum is considered to be a superfluid with measurable density. Rotating bodies drag vacuum and create a vortex with gradient pressure. The drag force of vacuum fluid flow in the arm of the vortex is calculated relative to the static vacuum and a value that is numerically equal to that of <em>G</em> is obtained. Using Archimedes’ principle, it is determined that <em>G</em> is the volume of vacuum displaced by a force equivalent to its weight which is equal to the drag force of the vacuum. It is concluded that the gravitational constant <em>G</em> expresses the force needed to displace a cubic metre of vacuum that weighs one kg in one second. Therefore, <em>G</em> is not a fundamental physical constant but rather is an expression of the resistance encountered by the gravitational force in the vacuum.展开更多
A theory employing the vortex shape of the electron was presented to resolve the enigma of the wave-particle duality. Conventions such as “particle” and “wave” were used to describe the behavior of quantum objects...A theory employing the vortex shape of the electron was presented to resolve the enigma of the wave-particle duality. Conventions such as “particle” and “wave” were used to describe the behavior of quantum objects such as electrons. A superfluid vacuum formed the base to describe the basic vortex structure and properties of the electron, whereas various formulations derived from hydrodynamic laws described the electron vortex circumference, radius, angular velocity and angular frequency, angular momentum (spin) and magnetic momentum. A vortex electron fully explained the associations between momentum and wave, and hydrodynamic laws were essential in deriving the energy and angular frequency of the electron. In general, an electron traveling in space possesses internal and external motions. To derive the angular frequency of its internal motion, the Compton wavelength was used to represent the length of one cycle of the internal motion that is equal to the circumference of the electron vortex. The angular frequency of the electron vortex was calculated to obtain the same value according to Planck’s theory. A traveling vortex electron has internal and external motions that create a three-dimensional helix trajectory. The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity of the electron is the resultant of its internal and external velocities, being equal to the internal velocity reduced by the Lorentz factor (whose essence is presented in a detailed formulation). The wavelength of the helix trajectory represents the distance traveled by a particle along its axis during one period of revolution around the axis, resulting in the same de Broglie wavelength that corresponds to the helix pitch of the helix. Mathematical formulations were presented to demonstrate the relation between the energy of the vortex and its angular frequency and de Broglie’s wavelength;furthermore, Compton’s and de Broglie’s wavelengths were also differentiated.展开更多
Electric constant believed fundamental constant determined only by physical measurement and cannot be calculated. A new theory about the origin and the essence of the electric constant is proposed and mathematical for...Electric constant believed fundamental constant determined only by physical measurement and cannot be calculated. A new theory about the origin and the essence of the electric constant is proposed and mathematical formulation is described. The vacuum is considered to be superfluid and the electric constant is described as a physical property of the “vacuum”. Hydrodynamics laws are applied to calculate the elasticity and the compressibility of the vacuum to obtain the electric constant value. Thus, electric permittivity is the expression of compressibility of the vacuum which is the capability of the vacuum to permit electric field lines. In conclusion, electric constant is not fundamental constant but observable parameter of the vacuum which depends mainly by the vacuum density. This result could have important consequences in our understanding the origin of physical forces forward Universal Unified Theory based on one constant only, the density of the vacuum.展开更多
In this study, the essence and origin of the magnetic constant are discussed and a mechanism that allows real estimations of the magnetic constant based upon the vacuum density description is proposed. By considering ...In this study, the essence and origin of the magnetic constant are discussed and a mechanism that allows real estimations of the magnetic constant based upon the vacuum density description is proposed. By considering the vacuum as a liquid with a measurable density and the electron as a vortex, hydrodynamic laws are applied to measure the diminished momentum of a rotating electron in a vacuum, thus obtaining a value similar to the experimentally derived value of the magnetic constant. A consequence of this description is that the magnetic constant can be expressed as the shear stress per unit time of the vacuum;this means that it is an observable vacuum parameter and not a fundamental constant.展开更多
Gravitation is still the least understood interaction among the fundamental forces of Nature. A new theory that explains the mechanism of gravitation and the origin Newton’s laws of gravitation and general relativity...Gravitation is still the least understood interaction among the fundamental forces of Nature. A new theory that explains the mechanism of gravitation and the origin Newton’s laws of gravitation and general relativity and distinguishes between two of the Newton’s laws has been proposed. It is shown that the vortex formation created during the Big Bang event is the origin of the gravitational force. The vortex curves the vacuum (space-time) around it, attract and condense energy and dust to its center to form the mass. The gradient pressure in the vortex creates a flow that upon interaction with an object transfers a part of its momentum to the object and pushes it toward the center. The force exercised on the object is equivalent to Newton’s second law. The force of attraction between two vortices is equivalent to Newton’s third law. The drag force between the energy flow of the vortex and the static vacuum diminishes the gravitational force and is equivalent to the G constant. The proposed theory could provide new interesting insights for a comprehensive understanding of gravitation and represents a theoretical starting point for the engineering of anti-gravitation technology.展开更多
Many properties of a single photon, such as density, rest mass, and orbital angular momentum, are still unknown. In a previous study, the photon was presented as a superfluid prolate spheroid structure, with a long-ax...Many properties of a single photon, such as density, rest mass, and orbital angular momentum, are still unknown. In a previous study, the photon was presented as a superfluid prolate spheroid structure, with a long-axis radius, short-axis radius, and volume, embodied with two spins—transversal and longitudinal—which are responsible for the three-dimensional helical trajectory of the electromagnetic wave. In this study, the rest mass, density, and energy of photon are mathematically derived, and the relationship between the radius of photon and its frequency is demonstrated. In addition, the difference between the Compton and de Broglie wavelengths is clarified. The calculated density, volume, and rest mass of photon agree with previous experimental results. The photon’s simultaneous longitudinal and transversal spins are moving forces of longitudinal and transversal trajectories, which are the origin of the three-dimensional helix shape of the electromagnetic field. A new mechanism for the photon movement is proposed, and the reason for the zero mass moving photon is revealed;a traveling photon in space exhibits zero mass because its boundaries demonstrate zero relative velocity with the surrounding vacuum. The orbital angular momentum of photon is described using similar macroscopic rotation concepts and applying hydrodynamics laws. A rotating photon is endowed with an angular velocity vector whose magnitude measures the speed with which the radius of the principal axis sweeps an angle, and whose direction indicates the principal axis of rotation and is given by the right-hand rule. The deviation angle is calculated using trigonometric functions, and the origin of the Lorenz factor is revealed.展开更多
A photon is the smallest discrete amount or quantum of electromagnetic radiation, and it is the basic unit of light. It exhibits no shape, “point particle,” according to the standard model of particle physics, meani...A photon is the smallest discrete amount or quantum of electromagnetic radiation, and it is the basic unit of light. It exhibits no shape, “point particle,” according to the standard model of particle physics, meaning that a photon interacts as if it is entirely located at a single point in space and does not spread out to fill a three-dimensional volume. In this study, a new theory, in which the photon demonstrates a structure and shape, is proposed based on the perturbed quantum superfluid field (vacuum) in the photon epoch during the first seconds of the Big Bang. Photons are the nonlinear manifestation of Kelvin–Helmholtz instability that induces the formation of elliptical vortices, known as Kida vortices, which are converted to a three-dimensional spheroidal structure that remains unchanged in time and rotates with uniform angular velocity due to Coriolis force. Using hydrodynamics laws and applying them to a superfluid vacuum, the basic properties of the photon are described. Moreover, this study provides mathematical models to calculate the kinetic energy, radius, volume, charge, and particle-wave duality of photon. To confirm the proposed theory, the mathematical formulations are presented. We conclude that the photon shape is accessible to human imagination;knowing this shape helps determine photon properties and sheds light on how matter is made as well as explains the interactions of subatomic particles.展开更多
Planck’s constant <i>h</i> is a fundamental physical constant defined in the realm of quantum theory and is determined only by physical measurement and cannot be calculated. To this day, physicists do not...Planck’s constant <i>h</i> is a fundamental physical constant defined in the realm of quantum theory and is determined only by physical measurement and cannot be calculated. To this day, physicists do not have a convincing explanation for why action in microcosm is quantized or why <i>h</i> has a specific quantitative value. Here, a new theory is presented based on the idea that the elementary particles are vortices of a condensed superfluid vacuum. The vortex has a conserved angular momentum that can be calculated by applying hydrodynamic laws;in this way, the numerical value of Planck’s constant can be obtained. Therefore, the Planck constant is not a fundamental constant but an observable parameter of the elementary particle as a vortex that has constant vorticity and conserved angular momentum. This theory may offer a unique and comprehensive understanding of Planck’s constant and open a new perspective for a theory of everything.展开更多
This paper aims to present a new theory that explains the mechanism of inertia at providing a satisfying explanation for the yet unknown mechanism for inertia. By considering the vacuum as a liquid with a measurable d...This paper aims to present a new theory that explains the mechanism of inertia at providing a satisfying explanation for the yet unknown mechanism for inertia. By considering the vacuum as a liquid with a measurable density, hydrodynamics laws are used to describe the behaviour of the vacuum when it is dragged by moving body. The inertia is the result of the initial resistance between the moving bodies against the static vacuum. The moving body drags the resisting vacuum during acceleration, till the point that the vacuum travels with the moving body and has the same velocity. When the body decelerates, the vacuum continues to flow and to push the body at the same direction of the original flow till its complete stop. Formulations based on Planck theory derived to prove its equivalence to Newton inertia law. Formulation based on hydrodynamics is derived to confirm the theory that the force exerted by the vacuum on static body in gravity and on moving body in inertia is equivalent to Newton law. The strong equivalence principle is reaffirmed and, consequently, Einstein’s equations are preserved.展开更多
Spin is an intrinsic form of angular momentum carried by elementary particles, composite particles, and atomic nuclei. It is wildly believed that spin is a purely quantum mechanical concept and has no classical analog...Spin is an intrinsic form of angular momentum carried by elementary particles, composite particles, and atomic nuclei. It is wildly believed that spin is a purely quantum mechanical concept and has no classical analogue. In fact, elementary particles are conceived as point objects which have no axis to “spin” around. Therefore, there is no explaining how spin arises at the fundamental level, why particles have the values they do, and what underpins the Pauli Exclusion principle and Bose-Einstein behavior. However, spin is like a vector quantity;it has a definite magnitude, and it has a “direction”, in order to spin should be composite. In this paper we propose a physical explanation for spin of the electron at the sub-particle level, relying on the vortex model of the electron. The electron is described as a superfluid frictionless vortex which has a mass, angular momentum and spin to provide a complete explanation of all properties of the electron: it composite, spinning around its own axis, produces a tiny magnetic fields independent of those from its orbital motions. The classical hydrodynamic laws are used to describe the quantum properties of the electron, such as spin, angular momentum, magnetic momentum and a magnetic dipole. The circulation in the vortex is constant, and the angular momentum of the vortex is conserved and has the same value of Planck constant. The direction of the angular momentum of a spinning electron vortex is along the axis of rotation and determined by the direction of spin. The spin quantum number 1/2 has a fixed value which represents the gap between the circulation rate of the core of the vortex and the boundaries of the vortex. The changeable values +1/2 “spin-up” or -1/2 “spin-down” indicate the direction of the magnetic dipole of the vortex. The relation between spin and Planck constant is discussed and the origin h/4pi angular momentum units are revealed.展开更多
文摘Mass plays a role in many physical phenomena, including the behavior of subatomic particles, the formation and behavior of stars and galaxies, and gravitational interactions between objects. The density of vacuum, 9.5 × 10−27 kg/m3, is a crucial parameter in the theory of cosmic inflation and is responsible for the accelerated expansion of the universe in its early stages. This vacuum energy interacts with matter and manifests itself as mass, which can be described as flow and vortex formation using the laws of hydrodynamics. The vortex model of elementary particles, in conjunction with the laws of hydrodynamics, provides an elegant explanation for the origin of mass and the relationship between mass and energy, with profound implications for the behavior of objects at high velocities and strong gravitational fields. The vacuum behaves as a compressible superfluid, thus elementary particles can be described as vortices of the vacuum. The equations of hydrodynamics for vortices can be applied to describe the nature and value of the mass of particles. The implications of understanding the nature of mass are vast and profound. From elucidating the fundamental properties of particles to informing the design of advanced materials and technologies, this knowledge is indispensable. It drives advancements across numerous fields, transforming both our theoretical understanding and practical capabilities. Continued research into the nature of mass promises to unlock further insights, fostering innovation and expanding the frontiers of science and technology.
文摘The purpose of this article is to propose a new design for the periodic table of elements. The new design is based on a three-dimensional (3D) model of the gastropod shell structure and presents a mechanism of the formation of elements that reflects the laws of nature that guide the formation of the gastropod shell, electron orbitals, and element structure. The author also identifies challenges associated with the current standard periodic table, such as the positions of hydrogen, helium, lanthanides, and actinides. The author’s research is a response to the IUPAC’s request, dating back to 2016, to settle unresolved disputes surrounding the current standard periodic table. Hence, the author proposes the “Gastropod Shell Model”, which presents the periodic system in 2D and 3D snail shells based on a hypothesized unifying principle guiding the formation of elements: the universal unified theory that considers the spiral and vortex forms as the bridge between energy and matter. The author was able to position hydrogen, helium, lanthanides, and actinides uniquely in their proposed periodic system to solve problems associated with their positions in the standard periodic table. Readers will be interested in uncovering the “hypothesized unifying principle guiding the formation of elements”.
文摘The nature and the origin of the fine structure are described. Based on the vortex model and hydrodynamics, a comprehensible interpretation of the fine structure constant is developed. The vacuum considered to have superfluid characteristics and elementary particles such as the electron and Hydrogen molecule are irrotational vortices of this superfluid. In such a vortex, the angular rotation ω is maintained, and the larger the radius, the slower the rotational speed. The fine structure value is derived from the ratio of the rotational speed of the boundaries of the vortex to the speed of the vortex eye in its center. Since the angular rotation is constant, the same value was derived from the ratio between the radius of the constant vortex core and the radius of the hall vortex. Therefore, the constancy of alpha is an expression of the constancy relation in the vortex structure.
文摘Charge is a fundamental physical property of matter that is responsible for its interactions with electromagnetic fields. The real nature and the essence of charge are unknown. In this paper, a new theory is presented to describe the nature and the essence of electric charge is formulated based on the vortex model of the electron which has a finite size and has an irrotational vortex structure. This theory and the vortex model of the electron enables us, for the first time, to describe the origin of bivalency, stability, quantization, equality of the absolute values of the bivalent charges, to derive a simple formulation to calculate the electric charge based on hydrodynamics without the use any constant. The difference between negative and positive charge, is revealed and the charged particles interactions are described. The electric charge is an expression of accelerated spherical mass per area reduced by the stiffness of the vacuum which has the units <i>ε</i><sub>0</sub> ML<sup>3</sup>/T<sup>2</sup>. The calculated results based on these equations comply accurately with the experimental results.
文摘Along with all other quantum objects, an electron is partly a wave and partly a particle. The corpuscular properties of a particle are demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given moment. When an electron looks more like a particle it has no shape, “point particle”, according to the Standard Model, meaning that it interacts as if it is entirely located at a single point in space and does not spread out to fill a three-dimensional volume. Therefore, in the sense of particle-like interactions, an electron has no shape. In this paper, a new theory is proposed in which the electron has a structure and a shape. The central idea is that an electron is a frictionless vortex with conserved momentum made out of condensed vacuum generated in the Big Bang from massless virtual photons that acquire mass when moving in the vortex at the speed of light. Using Hydrodynamics laws and applying them on the superfluid vacuum the basic properties of the electron are described here forth. This study provides mathematical models to calculate the mass, kinetic energy, density, volume, time, charge, and particle-wave duality. Such mathematical formulations are presented to confirm the theory. We conclude that the shape of the electron is accessible to human imagination, knowing its shape helps to determine its properties and shed a light on how matter is made and to explain the interactions of sub-atomic particles.
文摘The nature of gravitation and <em>G</em> is not well understood. A new gravitation mechanism is proposed that explains the origin and essence of the gravitational constant, <em>G</em>. Based on general relativity, the vacuum is considered to be a superfluid with measurable density. Rotating bodies drag vacuum and create a vortex with gradient pressure. The drag force of vacuum fluid flow in the arm of the vortex is calculated relative to the static vacuum and a value that is numerically equal to that of <em>G</em> is obtained. Using Archimedes’ principle, it is determined that <em>G</em> is the volume of vacuum displaced by a force equivalent to its weight which is equal to the drag force of the vacuum. It is concluded that the gravitational constant <em>G</em> expresses the force needed to displace a cubic metre of vacuum that weighs one kg in one second. Therefore, <em>G</em> is not a fundamental physical constant but rather is an expression of the resistance encountered by the gravitational force in the vacuum.
文摘A theory employing the vortex shape of the electron was presented to resolve the enigma of the wave-particle duality. Conventions such as “particle” and “wave” were used to describe the behavior of quantum objects such as electrons. A superfluid vacuum formed the base to describe the basic vortex structure and properties of the electron, whereas various formulations derived from hydrodynamic laws described the electron vortex circumference, radius, angular velocity and angular frequency, angular momentum (spin) and magnetic momentum. A vortex electron fully explained the associations between momentum and wave, and hydrodynamic laws were essential in deriving the energy and angular frequency of the electron. In general, an electron traveling in space possesses internal and external motions. To derive the angular frequency of its internal motion, the Compton wavelength was used to represent the length of one cycle of the internal motion that is equal to the circumference of the electron vortex. The angular frequency of the electron vortex was calculated to obtain the same value according to Planck’s theory. A traveling vortex electron has internal and external motions that create a three-dimensional helix trajectory. The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity of the electron is the resultant of its internal and external velocities, being equal to the internal velocity reduced by the Lorentz factor (whose essence is presented in a detailed formulation). The wavelength of the helix trajectory represents the distance traveled by a particle along its axis during one period of revolution around the axis, resulting in the same de Broglie wavelength that corresponds to the helix pitch of the helix. Mathematical formulations were presented to demonstrate the relation between the energy of the vortex and its angular frequency and de Broglie’s wavelength;furthermore, Compton’s and de Broglie’s wavelengths were also differentiated.
文摘Electric constant believed fundamental constant determined only by physical measurement and cannot be calculated. A new theory about the origin and the essence of the electric constant is proposed and mathematical formulation is described. The vacuum is considered to be superfluid and the electric constant is described as a physical property of the “vacuum”. Hydrodynamics laws are applied to calculate the elasticity and the compressibility of the vacuum to obtain the electric constant value. Thus, electric permittivity is the expression of compressibility of the vacuum which is the capability of the vacuum to permit electric field lines. In conclusion, electric constant is not fundamental constant but observable parameter of the vacuum which depends mainly by the vacuum density. This result could have important consequences in our understanding the origin of physical forces forward Universal Unified Theory based on one constant only, the density of the vacuum.
文摘In this study, the essence and origin of the magnetic constant are discussed and a mechanism that allows real estimations of the magnetic constant based upon the vacuum density description is proposed. By considering the vacuum as a liquid with a measurable density and the electron as a vortex, hydrodynamic laws are applied to measure the diminished momentum of a rotating electron in a vacuum, thus obtaining a value similar to the experimentally derived value of the magnetic constant. A consequence of this description is that the magnetic constant can be expressed as the shear stress per unit time of the vacuum;this means that it is an observable vacuum parameter and not a fundamental constant.
文摘Gravitation is still the least understood interaction among the fundamental forces of Nature. A new theory that explains the mechanism of gravitation and the origin Newton’s laws of gravitation and general relativity and distinguishes between two of the Newton’s laws has been proposed. It is shown that the vortex formation created during the Big Bang event is the origin of the gravitational force. The vortex curves the vacuum (space-time) around it, attract and condense energy and dust to its center to form the mass. The gradient pressure in the vortex creates a flow that upon interaction with an object transfers a part of its momentum to the object and pushes it toward the center. The force exercised on the object is equivalent to Newton’s second law. The force of attraction between two vortices is equivalent to Newton’s third law. The drag force between the energy flow of the vortex and the static vacuum diminishes the gravitational force and is equivalent to the G constant. The proposed theory could provide new interesting insights for a comprehensive understanding of gravitation and represents a theoretical starting point for the engineering of anti-gravitation technology.
文摘Many properties of a single photon, such as density, rest mass, and orbital angular momentum, are still unknown. In a previous study, the photon was presented as a superfluid prolate spheroid structure, with a long-axis radius, short-axis radius, and volume, embodied with two spins—transversal and longitudinal—which are responsible for the three-dimensional helical trajectory of the electromagnetic wave. In this study, the rest mass, density, and energy of photon are mathematically derived, and the relationship between the radius of photon and its frequency is demonstrated. In addition, the difference between the Compton and de Broglie wavelengths is clarified. The calculated density, volume, and rest mass of photon agree with previous experimental results. The photon’s simultaneous longitudinal and transversal spins are moving forces of longitudinal and transversal trajectories, which are the origin of the three-dimensional helix shape of the electromagnetic field. A new mechanism for the photon movement is proposed, and the reason for the zero mass moving photon is revealed;a traveling photon in space exhibits zero mass because its boundaries demonstrate zero relative velocity with the surrounding vacuum. The orbital angular momentum of photon is described using similar macroscopic rotation concepts and applying hydrodynamics laws. A rotating photon is endowed with an angular velocity vector whose magnitude measures the speed with which the radius of the principal axis sweeps an angle, and whose direction indicates the principal axis of rotation and is given by the right-hand rule. The deviation angle is calculated using trigonometric functions, and the origin of the Lorenz factor is revealed.
文摘A photon is the smallest discrete amount or quantum of electromagnetic radiation, and it is the basic unit of light. It exhibits no shape, “point particle,” according to the standard model of particle physics, meaning that a photon interacts as if it is entirely located at a single point in space and does not spread out to fill a three-dimensional volume. In this study, a new theory, in which the photon demonstrates a structure and shape, is proposed based on the perturbed quantum superfluid field (vacuum) in the photon epoch during the first seconds of the Big Bang. Photons are the nonlinear manifestation of Kelvin–Helmholtz instability that induces the formation of elliptical vortices, known as Kida vortices, which are converted to a three-dimensional spheroidal structure that remains unchanged in time and rotates with uniform angular velocity due to Coriolis force. Using hydrodynamics laws and applying them to a superfluid vacuum, the basic properties of the photon are described. Moreover, this study provides mathematical models to calculate the kinetic energy, radius, volume, charge, and particle-wave duality of photon. To confirm the proposed theory, the mathematical formulations are presented. We conclude that the photon shape is accessible to human imagination;knowing this shape helps determine photon properties and sheds light on how matter is made as well as explains the interactions of subatomic particles.
文摘Planck’s constant <i>h</i> is a fundamental physical constant defined in the realm of quantum theory and is determined only by physical measurement and cannot be calculated. To this day, physicists do not have a convincing explanation for why action in microcosm is quantized or why <i>h</i> has a specific quantitative value. Here, a new theory is presented based on the idea that the elementary particles are vortices of a condensed superfluid vacuum. The vortex has a conserved angular momentum that can be calculated by applying hydrodynamic laws;in this way, the numerical value of Planck’s constant can be obtained. Therefore, the Planck constant is not a fundamental constant but an observable parameter of the elementary particle as a vortex that has constant vorticity and conserved angular momentum. This theory may offer a unique and comprehensive understanding of Planck’s constant and open a new perspective for a theory of everything.
文摘This paper aims to present a new theory that explains the mechanism of inertia at providing a satisfying explanation for the yet unknown mechanism for inertia. By considering the vacuum as a liquid with a measurable density, hydrodynamics laws are used to describe the behaviour of the vacuum when it is dragged by moving body. The inertia is the result of the initial resistance between the moving bodies against the static vacuum. The moving body drags the resisting vacuum during acceleration, till the point that the vacuum travels with the moving body and has the same velocity. When the body decelerates, the vacuum continues to flow and to push the body at the same direction of the original flow till its complete stop. Formulations based on Planck theory derived to prove its equivalence to Newton inertia law. Formulation based on hydrodynamics is derived to confirm the theory that the force exerted by the vacuum on static body in gravity and on moving body in inertia is equivalent to Newton law. The strong equivalence principle is reaffirmed and, consequently, Einstein’s equations are preserved.
文摘Spin is an intrinsic form of angular momentum carried by elementary particles, composite particles, and atomic nuclei. It is wildly believed that spin is a purely quantum mechanical concept and has no classical analogue. In fact, elementary particles are conceived as point objects which have no axis to “spin” around. Therefore, there is no explaining how spin arises at the fundamental level, why particles have the values they do, and what underpins the Pauli Exclusion principle and Bose-Einstein behavior. However, spin is like a vector quantity;it has a definite magnitude, and it has a “direction”, in order to spin should be composite. In this paper we propose a physical explanation for spin of the electron at the sub-particle level, relying on the vortex model of the electron. The electron is described as a superfluid frictionless vortex which has a mass, angular momentum and spin to provide a complete explanation of all properties of the electron: it composite, spinning around its own axis, produces a tiny magnetic fields independent of those from its orbital motions. The classical hydrodynamic laws are used to describe the quantum properties of the electron, such as spin, angular momentum, magnetic momentum and a magnetic dipole. The circulation in the vortex is constant, and the angular momentum of the vortex is conserved and has the same value of Planck constant. The direction of the angular momentum of a spinning electron vortex is along the axis of rotation and determined by the direction of spin. The spin quantum number 1/2 has a fixed value which represents the gap between the circulation rate of the core of the vortex and the boundaries of the vortex. The changeable values +1/2 “spin-up” or -1/2 “spin-down” indicate the direction of the magnetic dipole of the vortex. The relation between spin and Planck constant is discussed and the origin h/4pi angular momentum units are revealed.
